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§6.
Religious Characteristics.
Was Constantine a Christian?
This vain question has to be considered, hardly discussed. The
interminable opinions, one way or the other, are for the most part
wise-seeming, meaningless generalizations. Like any generalized
statement, it is conditioned by the point of view of the author. When
ten men answered the question “What is a Christian?” in ten
different ways, who shall say what any one is? This has been the difficulty. One
does not conceive of Christianity apart from baptismal regeneration.
The question has then narrowed to one of baptism. Constantine was not a
Christian until just before his death. Another has some other test.
Another is not a Christian himself, and so on. A good Biblical,
Protestant starting-point is to say he was a Christian as soon as he
believed in Christ, and that the evidence of faith is in confession and
action. Already, before his campaign into Italy, he seems to have been
in intimate contact with the Christians. Hosius was probably already
one of his advisers. The young emperor had inherited his father’s
piety (Paneg. 307, c. 5), and was inclined to monotheism. The words of
advisers must have made him think at least, and he seems to have made a
sort of test of believing at the time of the famous “vision of
the cross,” whatever that may have been. Judging from the way men
think and feel their way to faith, it seems psychologically probable
that, feeling his way along to that point, he tried faith and, having
success, he substantially believed from that time on. Certainly from a
very early period after this, the evidences begin to be clear and
increasingly so as presumably his faith itself became more clear and
fixed. The account in Eusebius of the process of thought by which he
inclined toward Christianity has the greatest plausibility. He says
that “considering the matter of Divine assistance, it occurred to
him that those who had relied on idols had been deceived and destroyed,
while his father…had honored the one Supreme God, had found him
Saviour, &c.…he judged it folly to join in the idle worship
of those who were no gods…and felt it incumbent on him to honor
no other than the God of his father.” The nature of the vision of
the cross, whether a miracle, a natural phenomenon, or only a dream,
does not affect the probability of the account by Eusebius of what
followed it (V. C. 1. 32). “At the time above specified,
being struck with amazement at the extraordinary vision, and resolving
to worship no other God save him who had appeared to him, he sent for
those who were acquainted with the mysteries of his doctrines, and
inquired also what God was.…They affirmed that he was God, the
only begotten Son of the one and only God,” and he thereupon
“made the priests of God his counsellors and deemed it incumbent
on him to honor the God who had appeared to him, with all
devotion.” According to Sozomen, “it is universally
admitted Constantine embraced the religion of the Christians previous
to his war with Maxentius and prior to his return to Rome and Italy;
and this is evidenced by the dates of the laws which he enacted in
favor of religion” (Soz. 1. 5; cf. 1. 3). Philostorgius (1. 6),
“in conformity with all other writers,” ascribes to the
victory over Maxentius (Photius. Epit.). This is confirmed, too,
by the remark of the Panegyrist (313, c. 4; cf. c. 2 and c. 11), that
he conducted the war by Divine instruction, and the famous inscription
on the triumphal arch, “instinctu Divinitatis.”
According to Augustine he was at the time of the petition of the
Donatists, “mindful of the hope which he maintained in
Christ” (August. contra litt. Petil. Bk. II. c. 92, p.
205).
The tales of his baptism at this
time, or by Sylvester at all, are pure fables (cf. under The
Mythical Constantine), but it appears from antecedent probability,
from testimony, and from his early subsequent identification with the
Christians that he became fairly convinced at this time. His letters
concerning the council at Arles, to be sure, have little direct
evidence, but enough to show that he regarded the Christian religion as
the worship of that one supreme God, and in them Hosius was already his
trusted adviser. But in his letters to Chrestus (314) he speaks of
those who are “forgetful of their own salvation and the reverence
due to the most holy faith,” and if his letter to the bishops
after the council at Arles—a letter full of expressions like
“Christ the Saviour,” “brethren beloved,”
“I who myself await the judgment of Christ,” “our
Saviour”3044
| 3044 It
seems to have been frequently accepted as such—in the collections
of councils, by the editor of Optatus, Ceillier, &c. It first
appeared in the edition of Optatus, among the monuments relating to the
Donatists gathered by him. These monuments are from one single though
tolerably ancient ms. and no source for this
is quoted, though the sources of others are given. In itself considered
it is a surprise to find it at this stage of Constantine’s life.
Still, it is not unlike his later productions, and it is not impossible
to think of its having been written in the enthusiasm of a successfully
ended enterprise. It would seem (unless there be some confirmatory
study of the letter, not now at hand) that a cautious criticism would
base nothing on this letter alone. | —be
genuine, Constantine was well advanced in his commitment in 314; but
whether it is or not, the fact of his Christian advisers, of his laws in behalf of
Christians, and various substantial favors to them, his recognition of
their God as his one God, makes it almost idle to discuss the question.
Was Constantine a Christian in 314? What is a Christian? He seems to
have been. The type was that of many a business-man church-member of
to-day—Christians, but neither over-well-instructed, nor
dangerously zealous in the exercise of his faith. It must be remembered
that during these earlier years his confession of his faith and
identification of himself with the Christians was conditioned by his
relation to the old religion. Such a change was a radical novelty. His
position was not yet secure. He had to use his utmost tact to keep all
elements in hand. He was conditioned just as a modern Christian emperor
or president, a majority of whose political advisers and subjects or
electors are non-religious. He had great problems of political
organization to effect, and was immersed in these. The only matter of
surprise is that he grew so rapidly. There is no ground whatever for
supposing that he dissembled to the end, or even at all. To say that
his retaining the title of pontifex maximus, or making concessions
respecting the old worship, or allowing soothsayers to be consulted, or
even the postponement of his baptism, indicate this, is critical
absurdity in the face of evidence.3045
| 3045 His
saying before baptism is discussed in the V. C. 4. 2,
notes. | Testimony,
both heathen and Christian, to the openness of his action is complete,
and the testimony of his acts—such, e.g., as the law for the
observance of Sunday—conclusive. Later, at least, he “most
openly destroyed temple worship and built Christian houses of
worship” (Eunap. Vita Ædes. 37, ed. Boiss. p. 20).
From the defeat of Licinius on, edicts, letters, speeches, acts of all
sorts, testify to a most unequivocal adoption of the Christian
religion. Eusebius hardly overstates in saying that “he
maintained a continual testimony to his Christianity, with all boldness
and before all men, and so far was he from shrinking from an open
profession of the Christian name, that he rather desired to make it
manifest to all that he regarded this as his highest honor”
(V. C. 3. 2). Really the question whether he considered himself,
or was considered, a Christian at and after the time of the Council of
Nicæa is too idle even to mention, if it had not been gravely
discussed. In the opinion of the bishops there he was “most
pious” and “dear to God” (Ep. synod. in Socr.
1. 9; Theodoret, 1. 8). On his part, letters are full of pious
expression and usually begin or end or both with “beloved
brethren.” To the council itself he describes himself as
“fellow-servant” of “Him who is our common Lord and
Saviour.” Another more considerable position is that all that
indisputable external connection with Christianity was pure political
expediency, that he was a shrewd politician who saw which way the wind
was blowing, and had skill to take advantage of it. That Constantine
was not a Christian in the strict sense even to the end of his life was
the position of Keim. Burckhardt regards him as a pure politician,
without a touch of Christian life. Brieger (1880) says we have not
grounds to decide either way, whether he was “a godless egoistic
fatalist or had a more or less warm religious or even Christian
interest,” but that the fixed fact is, that it was not because of
his inner belief in the Christian religion that he showed favor to the
Christians. In a brief attempt to get some basis in the sources, the
enthusiastic testimony of Eusebius and other writers, explicit as it
is, may be quite disregarded, even the testimony to facts, such as his
practice of giving thanks (V. C. 1. 39), of invoking Divine aid
(Euseb. V. C. 2, 4, 6, 13; Soz. 2. 34), of his erecting a place
of prayer in his palace (Soz. 1. 8), of his fasting (V. C. 2.
41), of his having a stated hour of prayer (V. C. 4. 22),
although all these are interesting. The documents, however, unless by
supremely uncritical rejection, can be regarded as fundamental sources.
A brief analysis of these, even though imperfect, will furnish grounds
on the basis of which those who apply various tests may apply them.
Starting from his faith in Christ, surely the center of Christianity,
he believed Christ to be Son of God, “God and the Son of God the
author of every blessing” (S. C.), the revealer of the
Father, who has “revealed a pure light in the person of Thy
Son…and hast thus given testimony concerning Thyself”
(S. C. 1), proceeding from the Father (S. C.), and
incarnate, his incarnation having been predicted also by the prophets.
He believed this Son of God to be his Saviour (Ad Tyr., Ad Ant., Ad
Euseb., &c.) “our common Lord and Saviour” (Ad
Euseb.), “our Saviour, our hope, and our life” (Ad
eccl. Al.). He believed in his miraculous birth (S. C.) and
in his death for our deliverance (Ad Nic.; cf. Ad Mac.
&c.), “the path which leads to everlasting life” (S.
C. 1), “a precious and toilsome” work (Ad
Euseb.), and in his ascension into heaven (S. C. 1). He
believed in “God the Father” (Ad Euseb. 2),
“Almighty” (Ad Euseb.), Lord of all (Ad
Euseb. 2), and the Holy Ghost (Ad eccl. Al.; cf. S.
C.). He believed in “Divine Providence” (Ad Eccl.
Al.; Ad Alex. et Ar.; Ad. Euseb. 1), God the preserver of all men
(Ad Alex. et Ar.), who sees all things (Ad Syn. Nic.),
who is near us and the observer of all our actions (S. C.), and
“under the guidance of whose Almighty hand” he is (Ad
Prov. Pal.), that all things are regulated by the determination of
his will (Ad Euseb.). He believed in the existence of a personal
devil (Ad Eccl. Al.). He believed in the future life (Ad
Prov. Pal.), “the only true life” (S. C. 12),
the “strife for immortality” (Ad Euseb.), to which
those may aspire who know Him (S. C. 12). He believed in future
rewards and punishments (Ad Prov. Pal.; S. C. 23). He believed
in the inspiration of the Scriptures (Ad Eccl. Al.). He loved
God (Ad Euseb. 2; V. C. 2. 55), and considered it his chief work
in life to glorify Christ (S. C.). He loved his fellow-men,
being disposed “to love you with an enduring affection”
(Ad Ant.; V. C. 3. 60, &c.), and recognized it as virtue in
others (8, c. 11). To him, God, in general, is the source of all
blessings (Ad Prov. Pal.; S. C., &c.). “I am most
certainly persuaded,” he says, “that I myself owe my life,
my every breath, in short, my very inmost and secret thoughts to the
favor of the Supreme God” (Ad Prov. Pal.). He recognizes
contrition as a requisite for pardon (Ad. Prov. Pal), and that
it is the power of God which removes guilt (Ad Euseb.). In the
conduct of life. “Our Saviour’s words and precepts are a
model, as it were, of what our life should be” (Ad. Ant.; V.
C. 3. 60).
Expositions of his doctrinal and
ethical positions might be multiplied almost without end from the many
and fruitful sources, but a few specimens in his own expression will
best show the spirit of his religious life. A most suggestive and
beautiful sketch of Christ’s ministry on earth too long to quote
here may be found in his Oration (ch. 15), but the following
selections will give the idea:
A description of the inner
Christian life. “For the only power
in man which can be elevated to a comparison with that of God is
sincere and guiltless service and devotion of heart to Himself, with
the contemplation and study of whatever pleases Him, the raising our
affections above the things of earth, and directing our thoughts, as
far as we may, to high and heavenly objects” (S. C.
14).
A description of the outer
Christian life. “Compare our religion
with your own. Is there not with us genuine concord, and unwearied love
of others? If we reprove a fault, is not our object to admonish, not to
destroy; our correction for safety, not for cruelty? Do we not exercise
not only sincere faith toward God, but fidelity in the relations of
social life? Do we not pity the unfortunate? Is not ours a life of
simplicity which disdains to cover evil beneath the mask of fraud and
hypocrisy?” (S. C. 23).
A prayer. “Not without cause, O holy God, do I prefer this
prayer to Thee, the Lord of all. Under Thy guidance have I devised and
accomplished measures fraught with blessing: preceded by Thy sacred
sign, I have led Thy armies to victory: and still on each occasion of
public danger, I follow the same symbol of Thy perfections while
advancing to meet the foe. Therefore have I dedicated to Thy service a
soul duly attempered by love and fear. For Thy name I truly love, while
I regard with reverence that power of which Thou hast given abundant
proofs, to the confirmation and increase of my faith” (Ad
prov. Or.).
A confession of faith in God
and in Christ. “This God I confess
that I hold in unceasing honor and remembrance; this God I delight to
contemplate with pure and guileless thoughts in the height of his
glory.” “His pleasure is in works of moderation and
gentleness. He loves the meek and hates the turbulent spirit,
delighting in faith. He chastises unbelief” (Ad
Sap.). “He is the supreme judge of all things, the prince of
immortality, the giver of everlasting life” (S. C.
36).
Was Constantine a Christian? Let
each one apply his own test.E.C.F. INDEX & SEARCH
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