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| On the Soul (Anima).
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Chapter VIII.—On
the Soul (Anima).
1. The order of our arrangement now requires
us, after the discussion of the preceding subjects, to institute a
general inquiry regarding the soul;2180
and, beginning
with points of inferior importance, to ascend to those that are of
greater. Now, that there are souls2181
in
all living things, even in those which live in the waters, is, I
suppose, doubted by no one. For the general opinion of all men
maintains this; and confirmation from the authority of holy Scripture
is added, when it is said that “God made great whales, and every
living creature2182
that moveth which
the waters brought forth after their kind.”2183
It is confirmed also from the common
intelligence of reason, by those who lay down in certain words a
definition of soul. For soul is defined as follows: a
substance φανταστική
and ὁρμητική, which may be
rendered into Latin, although not so appropriately, sensibilis et
mobilis.2184
| 2184 Erasmus remarks, that
φανταστική
may be rendered imaginitiva, which is the understanding:
ὁρμητική,
impulsiva, which refers to the affections (Schnitzer). | This
certainly may be said appropriately of all living beings, even of those
which abide in the waters; and of winged creatures too, this same
definition of animamay be shown to hold good.
Scripture also has added its authority to a second opinion, when it
says, “Ye shall not eat the blood, because the life2185
of all flesh is its blood; and ye shall not
eat the life with the flesh;”2186
in which it
intimates most clearly that the blood of every animal is its
life. And if any one now were to ask how it can be said with
respect to bees, wasps, and ants, and those other things which are in
the waters, oysters and cockles, and all others which are without
blood, and are most clearly shown to be living things, that the
“life of all flesh is the blood,” we must answer, that in
living things of that sort the force which is exerted in other animals
by the power of red blood is exerted in them by that liquid which is
within them, although it be of a different colour; for colour is a
thing of no importance, provided the substance be endowed with
life.2187
That beasts of burden or cattle of
smaller size are endowed with souls,2188
there is, by
general assent, no doubt whatever. The opinion of holy Scripture,
however, is manifest, when God says, “Let the earth bring forth
the living creature after its kind, four-footed beasts, and creeping
things, and beasts of the earth after their kind.”2189
And now with respect to man, although
no one entertains any doubt, or needs to inquire, yet holy Scripture
declares that “God breathed into his countenance the breath of
life, and man became a living soul.”2190
It remains that we inquire respecting
the angelic order whether they also have souls, or are souls; and also
respecting the other divine and celestial powers, as well as those of
an opposite kind. We nowhere, indeed, find any authority in holy
Scripture for asserting that either the angels, or any other divine
spirits that are ministers of God, either possess souls or are called
souls, and yet they are felt by very many persons to be endowed with
life. But with regard to God, we find it written as
follows: “And I will put My soul upon that soul which has
eaten blood, and I will root him out from among his
people;”2191
| 2191 Lev. xvii. 10. It is clear that in the text
which Origen or his translator had before him he must have read
ψυχή instead of
πρόσωπον:
otherwise the quotation would be inappropriate (Schnitzer). | and also in another
passage, “Your new moons, and sabbaths, and great days, I will
not accept; your fasts, and holidays, and festal days, My soul
hateth.”2192
And in
the twenty-second Psalm, regarding Christ—for it is
certain, as the Gospel bears witness, that this Psalm is spoken of
Him—the following words occur: “O Lord, be not far
from helping me; look to my defence: O God, deliver my soul from
the sword, and my beloved one from the hand of the dog;”2193
although there are also many other
testimonies respecting the soul of Christ when He tabernacled in the
flesh.
2. But the nature of the incarnation will
render unnecessary any inquiry into the soul of Christ. For as He
truly possessed flesh, so also He truly possessed a soul. It is
difficult indeed both to feel and to state how that which is called in
Scripture the soul of God is to be understood; for we acknowledge that
nature to be simple, and without any intermixture or addition. In
whatever way, however, it is to be understood, it seems, meanwhile, to
be named the soul of God; whereas regarding Christ there is no
doubt. And therefore there seems to me no absurdity in either
understanding or asserting some such thing regarding the holy angels
and the other heavenly powers, since that definition of soul appears
applicable also to them. For who can rationally deny that they
are “sensible and moveable?” But if that definition
appear to be correct, according to which a soul is said to be a
substance rationally “sensible and moveable,” the same
definition would seem also to apply to angels. For what else is
in them than rational feeling and motion? Now those beings who
are comprehended under the same definition have undoubtedly the same
substance. Paul indeed intimates that there is a kind of
animal-man2194
who, he says,
cannot receive the things of the Spirit of God, but declares that the
doctrine of the Holy Spirit seems to him foolish, and that he cannot
understand what is to be spiritually discerned. In another
passage he says it is sown an animal body, and arises a spiritual body,
pointing out that in the resurrection of the just there will be nothing
of an animal nature. And therefore we inquire whether there
happen to be any substance which, in respect of its being
anima, is imperfect. But whether it be imperfect
because it falls away from perfection, or because it was so created by
God, will form the subject of inquiry when each individual topic shall
begin to be discussed in order. For if the animal man receive not
the things of the Spirit of God, and because he is animal, is unable to
admit the understanding of a better, i.e., of a divine nature, it is
for this reason perhaps that Paul, wishing to teach us more plainly
what that is by means of which we are able to comprehend those things
which are of the Spirit, i.e., spiritual things, conjoins and
associates with the Holy Spirit an understanding2195
rather than a soul.2196
For this, I think, he indicates when
he says, “I will pray with the spirit, I will pray with the
understanding also; I will sing with the spirit, I will sing with the
understanding also.”2197
And he does
not say that “I will pray with the soul,” but with the
spirit and the understanding. Nor does he say, “I will sing
with the soul,” but with the spirit and the
understanding.
3. But perhaps this question is asked, If it
be the understanding which prays and sings with the spirit, and if it
be the same which receives both perfection and salvation, how is it
that Peter says, “Receiving the end of your faith, even the
salvation of your souls?”2198
If the
soul neither prays nor sings with the spirit, how shall it hope for
salvation? or when it attains to blessedness, shall it be no longer
called a soul?2199
| 2199 These words are
found in Jerome’s Epistle to Avitus, and, literally
translated, are as follows: “Whence infinite caution is to
be employed, lest perchance, after souls have obtained salvation and
come to the blessed life, they should cease to be souls. For as
our Lord and Saviour came to seek and to save what was lost, that it
might cease to be lost; so the soul which was lost, and for whose
salvation the Lord came, shall, when it has been saved, cease for a
soul. This point in like manner must be examined, whether, as
that which has been lost was at one time not lost, and a time will come
when it will be no longer lost; so also at some time a soul may not
have been a soul, and a time may be when it will by no means continue
to be a soul.” A portion of the above is also found, in the
original Greek, in the Emperor Justinian’s Letter to Menas,
Patriarch of Constantinople. | Let us see if
perhaps an answer may be given in this way, that as the Saviour came to
save what was lost, that which formerly was said to be lost is not lost
when it is saved; so also, perhaps, this which is saved is called a
soul, and when it has been placed in a state of salvation will receive
a name from the Word that denotes its more perfect condition. But
it appears to some that this also may be added, that as the thing which
was lost undoubtedly existed before it was lost, at which time it was
something else than destroyed, so also will be the case when it is no
longer in a ruined condition. In like manner also, the soul which
is said to have perished will appear to have been something at one
time, when as yet it had not perished, and on that account would be
termed soul, and being again freed from destruction, it may become a
second time what it was before it perished, and be called a soul.
But from the very signification of the name soul which the Greek word
conveys, it has appeared to a few curious inquirers that a meaning of
no small importance may be suggested. For in sacred language God
is called a fire, as when Scripture says,” Our God is a consuming
fire.”2200
Respecting
the substance of the angels also it speaks as follows: “Who
maketh His angels
spirits, and His ministers a burning fire;”2201
| 2201 Ps.
civ. 4; cf. Heb. i. 7. | and in another place, “The angel of
the Lord appeared in a flame of fire in the bush.”2202
We have, moreover, received a
commandment to be “fervent in spirit;”2203
by which expression undoubtedly the Word of
God is shown to be hot and fiery. The prophet Jeremiah also hears
from Him, who gave him his answers, “Behold, I have given My
words into thy mouth a fire.”2204
| 2204 Cf. Jer. i. 9. The word “fire” is
found neither in the Hebrew nor in the Septuagint. | As God,
then, is a fire, and the angels a flame of fire, and all the saints are
fervent in spirit, so, on the contrary, those who have fallen away from
the love of God are undoubtedly said to have cooled in their affection
for Him, and to have become cold. For the Lord also says, that,
“because iniquity has abounded, the love of many will grow
cold.”2205
Nay, all
things, whatever they are, which in holy Scripture are compared with
the hostile power, the devil is said to be perpetually finding cold;
and what is found to be colder than he? In the sea also the
dragon is said to reign. For the prophet2206
intimates that the serpent and dragon, which certainly is referred to
one of the wicked spirits, is also in the sea. And elsewhere the
prophet says, “I will draw out my holy sword upon the dragon the
flying serpent, upon the dragon the crooked serpent, and will slay
him.”2207
And again he
says: “Even though they hide from my eyes, and descend into
the depths of the sea, there will I command the serpent, and it shall
bite them.”2208
In the book
of Job also, he is said to be the king of all things in the
waters.2209
The
prophet2210
threatens that
evils will be kindled by the north wind upon all who inhabit the
earth. Now the north wind is described in holy Scripture as cold,
according to the statement in the book of Wisdom, “That cold
north wind;”2211
which same thing
also must undoubtedly be understood of the devil. If, then, those
things which are holy are named fire, and light, and fervent, while
those which are of an opposite nature are said to be cold; and if the
love of many is said to wax cold; we have to inquire whether perhaps
the name soul, which in Greek is termed ψυχή, be so termed from growing
cold2212
out of a better and more divine condition,
and be thence derived, because it seems to have cooled from that
natural and divine warmth, and therefore has been placed in its present
position, and called by its present name. Finally, see if you can
easily find a place in holy Scripture where the soul is properly
mentioned in terms of praise: it frequently occurs, on the
contrary, accompanied with expressions of censure, as in the passage,
“An evil soul ruins him who possesses it;”2213
and, “The soul which sinneth, it shall
die.”2214
For after it
has been said, “All souls are Mine; as the soul of the father, so
also the soul of the son is Mine,”2215
it
seemed to follow that He would say, “The soul that doeth
righteousness, it shall be saved,” and “The soul which
sinneth, it shall die.” But now we see that He has
associated with the soul what is censurable, and has been silent as to
that which was deserving of praise. We have therefore to see if,
perchance, as we have said is declared by the name itself, it was
called ψυχή, i.e., anima,
because it has waxed cold from the fervour of just things,2216
| 2216 “By
falling away and growing cold from a spiritual life, the soul has
become what it now is, but is capable also of returning to what it was
at the beginning, which I think is intimated by the prophet in the
words, ‘Return, O my soul, unto thy rest,’ so as to be
wholly this.”—Epistle of Justinian to Patriarch of
Constantinople. | and from participation in the divine fire,
and yet has not lost the power of restoring itself to that condition of
fervour in which it was at the beginning. Whence the prophet also
appears to point out some such state of things by the words,
“Return, O my soul, unto thy rest.”2217
From all which this appears to be made
out, that the understanding, falling away from its status and dignity,
was made or named soul; and that, if repaired and corrected, it returns
to the condition of the understanding.2218
| 2218 “The
understanding (Νοῦς) somehow, then, has become
a soul, and the soul, being restored, becomes an understanding.
The understanding falling away, was made a soul, and the soul, again,
when furnished with virtues, will become an understanding. For if
we examine the case of Esau, we may find that he was condemned because
of his ancient sins in a worse course of life. And respecting the
heavenly bodies we must inquire, that not at the time when the world
was created did the soul of the sun, or whatever else it ought to be
called, begin to exist, but before that it entered that shining and
burning body. We may hold similar opinions regarding the moon and
stars, that, for the foregoing reasons, they were compelled,
unwillingly, to subject themselves to vanity on account of the rewards
of the future; and to do, not their own will, but the will of their
Creator, by whom they were arranged among their different
offices.”—Jerome’s Epistle to Avitus.
From these, as well as other passages, it may be seen how widely
Rufinus departed in his translation from the original. |
4. Now, if this be the case, it seems to me that
this very decay and falling away of the understanding is not the same
in all, but that this conversion into a soul is carried to a greater or
less degree in different instances, and that certain understandings
retain something even of their former vigour, and others again either
nothing or a very small amount. Whence some are found from the
very commencement of their lives to be of more active intellect, others
again of a slower habit of mind, and some are born wholly obtuse, and
altogether incapable of instruction. Our statement, however, that
the understanding is
converted into a soul, or whatever else seems to have such a meaning,
the reader must carefully consider and settle for himself, as these
views are not be regarded as advanced by us in a dogmatic manner, but
simply as opinions, treated in the style of investigation and
discussion. Let the reader take this also into consideration,
that it is observed with regard to the soul of the Saviour, that of
those things which are written in the Gospel, some are ascribed to it
under the name of soul, and others under that of spirit. For when
it wishes to indicate any suffering or perturbation affecting Him, it
indicates it under the name of soul; as when it says, “Now is My
soul troubled;”2219
and, “My soul
is sorrowful, even unto death;”2220
and, “No man taketh My soul2221
from Me, but I
lay it down of Myself.”2222
Into the
hands of His Father He commends not His soul, but His spirit; and when
He says that the flesh is weak, He does not say that the soul is
willing, but the spirit: whence it appears that the soul is
something intermediate between the weak flesh and the willing
spirit.
5. But perhaps some one may meet us with one
of those objections which we have ourselves warned you of in our
statements, and say, “How then is there said to be also a soul of
God?” To which we answer as follows: That as with
respect to everything corporeal which is spoken of God, such as
fingers, or hands, or arms, or eyes, or feet, or mouth, we say that
these are not to be understood as human members, but that certain of
His powers are indicated by these names of members of the body; so also
we are to suppose that it is something else which is pointed out by
this title—soul of God. And if it is allowable for us to
venture to say anything more on such a subject, the soul of God may
perhaps be understood to mean the only-begotten Son of God. For
as the soul, when implanted in the body, moves all things in it, and
exerts its force over everything on which it operates; so also the
only-begotten Son of God, who is His Word and Wisdom, stretches and
extends to every power of God, being implanted in it; and perhaps to
indicate this mystery is God either called or described in Scripture as
a body. We must, indeed, take into consideration whether it is
not perhaps on this account that the soul of God may be understood to
mean His only-begotten Son, because He Himself came into this world of
affliction, and descended into this valley of tears, and into this
place of our humiliation; as He says in the Psalm, “Because Thou
hast humiliated us in the place of affliction.”2223
Finally, I am aware that certain
critics, in explaining the words used in the Gospel by the Saviour,
“My soul is sorrowful, even unto death,” have interpreted
them of the apostles, whom He termed His soul, as being better than the
rest of His body. For as the multitude of believers is called His
body, they say that the apostles, as being better than the rest of the
body, ought to be understood to mean His soul.
We have brought forward as we best could these points
regarding the rational soul, as topics of discussion for our readers,
rather than as dogmatic and well-defined propositions. And with
respect to the souls of animals and other dumb creatures, let that
suffice which we have stated above in general terms. E.C.F. INDEX & SEARCH
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