BOOK THE LEIPSIC DISPUTATION CHAPTER Luther’s Danger — God preserves Luther — The Pope sends a Chamberlain — The Legate’s Journey — Roman Briefs — Circumstances favorable to the Reform — Miltitz with Spalatin — Tetzel’s Alarm — Miltitz’s Flattery — Demands a Retraction — Luther refuses, but offers to keep Silence — Agreement between Luther and the Nuncio — The Legate’s Kiss — Tetzel reproached by the Legate — Luther to the Pope — Nature of the Reformation — Luther opposes Separation — De Vio and Miltitz at Treves — Luther’s Cause extends over various Countries — Luther’s Writings begin the Reformation CHAPTER -Pause in Germany — Eck revives the Contest — Disputation between Eck and Carlstadt — Question of the Pope — Luther replies — Fears of Luther’s Friends — Luther’s Courage — The Truth triumphs unaided — Refusal of Duke George — Gaiety of Mosellanus — Fears of Erasmus CHAPTER -Arrival of Eck and of the Wittenbergers — Amsdorff — The Students — Carlstadt’s Accident — Placard — Eck and Luther — The Pleissenburg — Judges proposed — Luther objects — He consents at last CHAPTER -Opening of the Disputation — Speech of Mosellanus — Veni, Sancte Spiritus — Portraits of Luther and Carlstadt — Doctor Eck — Carlstadt’s Books — Merit of Congruity — Natural Powers — Scholastic Distinction — Point at which Rome and the Reformation diverge — Liberty given to Man by Grace — Carlstadt’s Notes — Clamor of the Spectators — Melancthon during the Disputation — His Opinion — Eck’s Manoeuvers — Luther Preaches — Citizens of Leipsic — Quarrels between the Students and Doctors CHAPTER -The Hierarchy and Rationalism — The Two Peasants’ Sons — Eck and Luther begin — The Head of the Church — Primacy of Rome — Equality of Bishops — Peter the Foundation-stone — Christ the Corner-stone — Eck insinuates that Luther is a Hussite — Luther on the Doctrine of Huss — Agitation among the Hearers — The Word alone — The Court-fool — Luther at Mass — Saying of the Duke — Purgatory — Close of the Discussion CHAPTER -Interest felt by the Laity — Luther’s Opinion — Confession and Boasts of Doctor Eck — Effects of the Disputation — Poliander — Cellarius — The Young Prince of Anhalt — The Students of Leipsic — Cruciger — Melancthon’s Call — Luther’s Emancipation CHAPTER -Eck attacks Melancthon — Melancthon’s Defense — Interpretation of Holy Scripture — Luther’s Firmness — The Bohemian Brothers — Emser — Staupitz CHAPTER -The Epistle to the Galatians — Christ for us — Blindness of Luther’s Opponents — Earliest Ideas on the Lord’s Supper — Is the Sacrament without Faith sufficient? — Luther a Bohemian — Eck attacked — Eck goes to Rome BOOK THE PAPAL BULL CHAPTER Character of Maximilian — Candidates for the Empire — Charles — Francis I — Disposition of the Germans — The Crown offered to Frederick — Charles elected Emperor CHAPTER -Luther’s Letter to the Emperor — His Danger — Frederick’s Instructions to his Envoy at Rome — Luther’s Sentiments — Melancthon’s Fears — The German Nobles favor the Reformation — Schaumburg — Sickingen — Ulrich of Hutten — Luther’s Confidence — Erasmus defends Luther — Abstemius — Hedio — Luther becomes more free — Faith the Source of Works — What gives Faith? — Luther judging his own Writings CHAPTER -The Papacy attacked — Appeal to the Nobility — The three Walls — All Christians are Priests — The Magistrate should chastise the Clergy — Roman Corruptions — Ruin of Italy — Dangers of Germany — The Pope — The Legates — The Monks — Marriage of Priests — Celibacy — Festivals — The Bohemians — Charity — The Universities — The Empire — The Emperor should retake Rome — Unpublished Book — Luther’s Moderation — Success of the Address CHAPTER -Preparations at Rome — Motives for Papal Resistance — Eck at Rome — The King of Crowns — Eck prevails — The Pope is the World — God brings about the Separation — A Swiss Priest pleads for Luther — The Roman Consistory — Exordium of the Bull — Luther condemned CHAPTER -Wittenberg — Melancthon — His Marriage — Catherine — Domestic Life — Benevolence — Good Humor — Christ and Antiquity — Labor — Love of Letters — His Mother — Revolt of the Students CHAPTER -The Gospel in Italy — Sermon on the Mass — Babylonish Captivity of the Church — Baptism — Abolition of other Vows — Progress of Reform CHAPTER -Fresh Negotiations — The Augustines at Eisleben — Miltitz — Deputation to Luther — Miltitz and the Elector — Conference at Lichtemberg — Luther’s Letter to the Pope — Book presented to the Pope — Union of Christ with the Believer — Liberty and Bondage CHAPTER -The Bull in Germany — Eck’s Reception — The Bull at Wittenberg — Zwingle’s Intervention CHAPTER -Luther’s Appeal to God — His Opinion of the Bull — A Neutral Family — Luther on the Bull — Against the Bull of Antichrist — The Pope forbids Faith — Effects of the Bull — The Burning Pile of Louvain CHAPTER -Decisive Step of the Reformer — Luther’s Appeal to a General Council — Close Combat — The Bull burnt by Luther — Meaning of this daring Act — Luther in the Academy — Luther against the Pope — New Work by Melancthon — How Luther encourages his Friends — Progress of the Struggle — Melancthon’s Opinions on the Weak-hearted — Luther’s Treatise on the Bible — Doctrine of Grace — Luther’s Recantation CHAPTER -Coronation of Charles the Fifth — The Nuncio Aleander — Shall Luther’s Books be burnt? — Aleander and the Emperor — The Nuncios and the Elector — Duke John’s Son in behalf of Luther — Luther’s Calmness — The Elector protects Luther — Reply of the Nuncios — Erasmus at Cologne — Erasmus at the Elector’s — Declaration of Erasmus — Advice of Erasmus — System of Charles V CHAPTER -Luther on Confession — Real Absolution — Antichrist — Luther’s Popularity — Satires — Ulrich of Hutten — Lucas Cranach — The Carnival at Wittenberg — Staupitz intimidated — Luther’s Labors — His Humility — Progress of the Reformation BOOK THE DIET OF WORMS , JANUARY TO MAY CHAPTER Victories of the Word of God — The Diet of Worms — Policy of Rome — Difficulties — Charles demands Luther — The Elector to Charles V — State of Feeling — Alarm of Aleander — The Elector departs without Luther — Aleander arouses Rome — Excommunication of Pope and Communion with Christ — Fulminations of the Bull — Luther’s Motives in the Reformation CHAPTER -A Foreign Prince — Council of Politicians — Conference between the Confessor and the Chancellor — Inutility of these Manoeuvers — Aleander’s Activity — Luther’s Words — Charles yields to the Pope CHAPTER -Aleander introduced to the Diet — Aleander’s Speech — Luther is accused — Rome is justified — Appeal to Charles against Luther — Effect of the Nuncio’s Speech CHAPTER -Sentiments of the Princes — Speech of Duke George — Character of the Reformation — One Hundred and One Grievances — Charles gives Way — Aleander’s Stratagems — The Grandees of Spain — Peace of Luther — Death and no Retraction CHAPTER -Shall Luther have a Safe-conduct — The Safe-conduct — Will Luther come — Holy Thursday at Rome — The Pope and Luther CHAPTER -Luther’s Courage — Bugenhagen at Wittenberg — Persecutions in Pomerania — Melancthon desires to accompany Luther — Amsdorff, Schurff, and Suaven — Hutten to Charles V CHAPTER -Departure for the Diet of Worms — Luther’s Farewell — His Condemnation is posted up — Cavalcade near Erfurth — Meeting between Jonas and Luther — Luther in his former Convent — Luther preaches at Erfurth — Incident — Faith and Works — Concourse of People and Luther’s Courage — Luther’s Letter to Spalatin — Stay at Frankfort — Fears at Worms — Plan of the Imperialists — Luther’s Firmness CHAPTER -Entry into Worms — Death-Song — Charles’s Council — Capito and the Temporizers — Luther’s numerous Visiters — Citation — Hutten to Luther — Luther proceeds to the Diet — Saying of Freundsberg — Imposing Assembly — The Chancellor’s Speech — Luther’s Reply — His Discretion — Saying of Charles V — Alarm — Triumph — Luther’s Firmness — Violence of the Spaniards — Advice — Luther’s Struggles and Prayer — Strength of the Reformation — His Vow to the Scriptures — The Court of the Diet — Luther’s Speech — Three Classes of Writings — He requires Proof of his Errors — Serious Warnings — He repeats his Speech in Latin — Here I stand; I can say no more — The Weakness of God stronger than Man — A new Attempt — Victory CHAPTER -Tumult and Calmness — The Flagon of Duke Eric — The Elector and Spalatin — The Emperor’s Message — Proposal to violate the Safeconduct — Violent Opposition — Enthusiasm in Favor of Luther — Language of Conciliation — Fears of the Elector — Luther’s numerous Visiters — Philip of Hesse CHAPTER -Conference with the Archbishop of Treves — Wehe’s Exhortation to Luther — Luther’s Replies — Private Conversation — Visit of Cochloeus — Supper at the Archbishop’s — Conference at the Hotel of the Knights of Rhodes — A Council proposed — Luther’s last Interview with the Archbishop — Visit to a sick Friend — Luther receives Orders to leave Worms — Luther’s Departure CHAPTER -The Conflict at Worms — Luther’s Letter to Cranach — Luther’s Letter to Charles V — Luther with the Abbot of Hirschfeldt — The Parish Priest of Eisenach — Several Princes leave the Diet — Charles signs Luther’s Condemnation — The Edict of Worms — Luther with his Parents — Luther attacked and carried away — The Ways of God — The Wartburg — Luther a Prisoner BOOK THE SWISS - CHAPTER Movement in Switzerland — Source of the Reformation — Its democratic Character — Foreign Service — Morality — The Tockenburg — A Chalet on the Alps — A Family of Shepherds — Young Ulrich CHAPTER -Ulrich at Wesen and Basle — Ulrich at Berne — The Dominican Convent — Jetzer — The Apparitions — Passion of the Lay-brother — Imposture — Discovery and Punishment — Zwingle at Vienna and Basle — Music at Basle — Wittembach proclaims the Gospel — Leo Juda — The Priest of Glaris CHAPTER -Fondness for War — Schinner — Pension from the Pope — The Labyrinth — Zwingle in Italy — Principle of Reform — Zwingle and Luther — Zwingle and Erasmus — Zwingle and the ancient Classics — Paris and Glaris CHAPTER -Zwingle to Erasmus — Oswald Myconius — The Robbers — Oecolampadius — Zwingle at Marignan — Zwingle and Italy — Zwingle’s Method — Commencement of the Reform — Discovery — Passage from one World to the other CHAPTER -Our Lady of Einsidlen — Zwingle’s Call — The Abbot — Geroldsek — A learned Society — The Bible copied — Zwingle and Superstition — First Opposition to Error — Sensation — Hedio — Zwingle and the Legates — The Honors of Rome — The Bishop of Constance — Samson and the Indulgences — Stapfer — Zwingle’s Charity — His Friends CHAPTER -The Canons’ College — Election to the Cathedral — Fable — Accusations — Zwingle’s Confession — Development of God’s Purposes — Farewell to Einsidlen — Arrival at Zurich — Zwingle’s bold Declaration — First Sermons — Their Effect — Opposition — Zwingle’s Character — Taste for Music — Arrangement of the Day — The Bookhawker CHAPTER -The Indulgences — Samson at Berne and at Baden — The Dean of Bremgarten Young Henry Bullinger — Samson and the Dean — Zwingle’s internal Struggles — Zwingle opposes the Indulgences — Samson is sent back CHAPTER -Zwingle’s Toils and Fatigue — The Baths of Pfeffers — The Moment of God — The Great Death — Zwingle attacked by the Plague — His Adversaries — His Friends — Convalescence — General Joy — Effects of the Pestilence — Myconius at Lucerne — Oswald encourages Zwingle — Zwingle at Basle — Capito invited to Mentz — Hedio at Basle — The Unnatural Soa — Preparations for the Struggle CHAPTER -The Two Reformers — The Fall of Man — Expiation of the Man-God — No Merit in Works — Objections refuted — Power of Love for Christ — Election — Christ the sole Master — Effects of this Preaching — Dejection and Courage — First Act of the Magistrate — Church and State — Attacks — Galster CHAPTER -A new Combatant — The Reformer of Berne — Zwingle encourages Haller — The Gospel at Lucerne — Oswald persecuted — Zwingle’s Preaching — Henry Bullinger and Gerold of Knonau — Rubli at Basle — The Chaplain of the Hospital — War in Italy — Zwingle protests against the Capitulations CHAPTER -Zwingle opposes Human Traditions — Commotion during Lent — Truth triumphs amidst Opposition — The Bishop’s Deputies — Accusation before the Clergy and the Council — Appeal to the Great Council — The Coadjutor and Zwingle — Zwingle’s Reply — Decree of the Great Council — Posture of Affairs — Hoffman’s Attack CHAPTER -Mourning and Joy in Germany — Plots against Zwingle — The Bishop’s Mandate — Archeteles — The Bishop’s Appeal to the Diet — Injunction against attacking the Monks — Zwingle’s Declaration — The Nuns of Oetenbach — Zwingle’s Address to Schwytz CHAPTER -A French Monk — He teaches in Switzerland — Dispute between Zwingle and the Monk — Discourse of the Commander of the Johannites — The Carnival at Berne — The Eaters of the Dead — The Skull of At Anne-Appenzel — The Grisons — Murder and Adultery — Zwingle’s Marriage CHAPTER -How the Truth triumphs — Meeting at Einsidlen — Petition to the Bishop and Confederates — The Men of Einsidlen separate — Scene in a Convent — Dinner with Myconius — The Strength of the Reformers — Effect of the Petitions to Lucerne — The Council of the Diet — Haller at the Town-hall — Friburg — Oswald’s Destitution — Zwingle consoles him — Oswald quits Lucerne — The Diet’s first Act of Severity — Consternation of Zwingle’s Brothers — Zwingle’s Resolution — The Future — Zwingle’s Prayer BOOK FIRST REFORMS AND Preface to Volume Third Page CHAPTER -Progress of the Reformation — New Period — Usefulness of Luther’s Captivity in the Wartburg — Agitation in Germany — Melancthon and Luther — Enthusiasm Page CHAPTER -Luther in the Wartburg — Object of his Captivity — Anxiety — Sickness — Luther’s Labors — On Confession — Reply to Latomus — His daily Walks CHAPTER -Commencement of the Reform — Marriage of Feldkirchen — The Marriage of Monks — Theses — Tract against Monachism — Luther no longer a Monk CHAPTER -Archbishop Albert — The Idol of Halle — Luther’s Indignation — Alarm of the Court — Luther’s Letter to the Archbishop — Albert’s Reply — Joachim of Brandenburg CHAPTER -Translation of the Bible — Wants of the Church — Principles of the Reformation — Temptations of the Devil — Luther’s Works condemned by the Sorbonne — Melancthon’s Reply — Luther Visits Wittenberg CHAPTER -Fresh Reforms — Gabriel Zwilling on the Mass — The University — Melancthon’s Propositions — The Elector — Monastic Institutions attacked — Emancipation of the Monks — Disturbances — Chapter of the Augustine Monks — Carlstadt and the Mass — First Celebration of the Lord’s Supper — Importance of the Mass in the Romish System CHAPTER -False Reform — The New Prophets — The Prophets at Wittenberg — Melancthon — The Elector — Luther — Carlstadt and the Images — Disturbances — Luther is called for — He does not hesitate — Dangers CHAPTER -Departure from the Wartburg — New Position — Luther and Primitive Catholicism — Meeting at the Black Bear — Luther’s Letter to the Elector — Return to Wittenberg — Sermon at Wittenberg — Charity — The Word — How the Reformation was brought about — Faith in Christ — Its Effects — Didymus — Carlstadt — The Prophets — Interview with Luther — End of the Struggle CHAPTER -Translation of the New Testament — Faith and Scripture — Opposition — Importance of this Publication — Necessity for a systematic Arrangement — Melancthon’s Loci Communes — Original Sin — Salvation — Free Will — Effects of the Loci Communes CHAPTER -Opposition — Henry VIII — Wolsey — The Queen — Fisher — Thomas More — Luther’s Books burnt — Henry’s Attack on Luther — Presented to the Pope — Its Effect on Luther — Energy and Violence — Luther’s Reply — Answer by the Bishop of Rochester — Reply of Thomas More — Henry’s Proceedings CHAPTER -General Movement — The Monks — How the Reformation was carried on — Unlearned Believer — The Old and the New Doctors — Printing and Literature — Bookselling and Colportage CHAPTER -Luther at Zwickau — The Castle of Freyberg — Worms — Frankfort — Universal Movement — Wittenberg the Center of the Reformation — Luther’s Sentiments BOOK AGITATION, REVERSES, AND PROGRESS — CHAPTER Political Element — Want of Enthusiasm at Rome — Siege of Pampeluna — Courage of Ignatius — Transition — Luther and Loyola — Visions — Two Principles CHAPTER -Victory of the Pope — Death of Leo X — The Oratory of Divine Love — Adrian VI — Plan of Reform — Opposition CHAPTER -Diet of Nuremberg — Soliman’s Invasion — The Nuncio calls for Luther’s Death — The Nuremberg Preachers — Promise of Reform — Grievances of the Nation — Decree of the Diet — Fulminating Letter of the Pope — Luther’s Advice CHAPTER -Persecution — Exertions of Duke George — The Convent at Antwerp — Miltenberg — The Three Monks of Antwerp — The Scaffold — The Martyrs of Brussels CHAPTER -The New Pope, Clement VII — The Legate Campeggio — Diet of Nuremberg — Demand of the Legate — Reply of the Diet — A Secular Council projected — Alarm and Exertions of the Pope — Bavaria — League of Ratisbon — Severity and Reforms — Political Schism — Opposition — Intrigues of Rome — Decree of Burgos — Rupture CHAPTER -Persecution — Gaspard Tauber — A Bookseller — Cruelties in Wurtemberg, Salzburg, and Bavaria — Pomerania — Henry of Zuphten CHAPTER -Divisions — The Lord’s Supper — Two Extremes — Hoen’s Discovery — Carlstadt — Luther — Mysticism of the enthusiasts — Carlstadt at Orlamund — Luther’s Mission — Interview at Table — The Conference of Orlamund — Carlstadt banished CHAPTER -Progress — Resistance against the Ratisbon Leaguers — Meeting between Philip of Hesse and Melancthon — The Landgrave converted to the Gospel — The Palatinate — Luneburg — Holstein — The Grand- Master at Wittenberg CHAPTER -Reforms — All Saints Church — Fall of the Mass — Learning — Christian Schools — Learning extended to the Laity — The Arts — Moral Religion — Esthetical Religion — Music — Poetry — Painting CHAPTER -Political Ferment — Luther against Rebellion — Thomas Munzer — Agitation — The Black Forest — The twelve Articles — Luther’s Opinion — Helfenstein — March of the Peasants — March of the Imperial Army — Defeat of the Peasants — Cruelty of the Princes CHAPTER -Munzer at Mulhausen — Appeal to the People — March of the Princes — End of the Revolt — Influence of the Reformers — Sufferings — Changes — Two Results CHAPTER -Death of the Elector Frederick — The Prince and the Reformer — Roman-catholic Alliance — Plans of Charles the Fifth — Dangers CHAPTER -The Nuns of Nimptsch — Luther’s Sentiments — The Convent dissolved — Luther’s Marriage — Domestic Happiness CHAPTER -The Landgrave — The Elector — Prussia — Reformation — Secularization — The Archbishop of Mentz — Conference at Friedwalt — Diet — Alliance of Torgau — Resistance of the Reformers — Alliance of Magdeburg — The Catholics redouble their Exertions — The Emperor’s Marriage — Threatening Letters — The two Parties BOOK DIVISIONS SWITZERLAND — GERMANY — CHAPTER Unity in Diversity — Primitive Fidelity and Liberty — Formation of Romish Unity — Leo Juda and the Monk — Zwingle’s Theses — The Disputation of January CHAPTER -Papal Temptations — Progress of the Reformation — The Idol at Stadelhofen — Sacrilege — The Ornaments of the Saints CHAPTER -The Disputation of October — Zwingle on the Church — The Church — Commencement of Presbyterianism — Discussion on the Mass — Enthusiasts — The Language of Discretion — Victory — A Characteristic of the Swiss Reformation — Moderation — Oswald Myconius at Zurich — Revival of Literature — Thomas Plater of the Valais CHAPTER -Diet of Lucerne — Hottinger arrested — His Death — Deputation from the Diet to Zurich — Abolition of religious Processions — Abolition of Images — The Two Reformations — Appeal to the People CHAPTER -New Opposition — Abduction of Oexlin — The Family of the Wirths — The Populace at the Convent of Ittingen — The Diet of Zug — The Wirths apprehended and given up to the Diet — Their Condemnation CHAPTER -Abolition of the Mass — Zwingle’s Dream — Celebration of the Lord’s Supper — Fraternal Charity — Original Sin — The Oligarchs opposed to the Reform — Various Attacks CHAPTER -Berne — The Provost Watteville — First Successes of the Reformed Doctrines — Haller at the Convent — Accusation and Deliverance — The Monastery of Konigsfeldt — Margaret Watteville to Zwingle — The Convent opened — Two Champions — Clara May and the Provost Watteville CHAPTER -Basle — Oecolampadius — He visits Augsburg — Enters a Convent — Retires to Sickingen’s Castle — Returns to Basle — Ulrich Hutten — His Plans — Last Effort of Chivalry — Hutten dies at Ufnau CHAPTER -Erasmus and Luther — Vacillations of Erasmus — Luther to Erasmus — Erasmus’s Treatise against Luther on Free Will — Three Opinions — Effect upon Luther — Luther on Free Will — The Jansenists and the Reformers — Homage to Erasmus — His Anger — The Three Days CHAPTER -The Three Adversaries — Source of Truth — Grebel — the fanatics and Zwingle — Constitution of the Church — Prison — The Prophet Blaurock — Fanaticism at Saint Gall — Schucker and Family — Discussion at Zurich — The Limits of the Reformation — Punishment of the fanatics CHAPTER -Progression and Immobility — Zwingle and Luther — Luther’s Return to Scholasticism — Respect for Tradition — Occam — Contrary Tendency in Zwingle — Beginning of the Controversy — Oecolampadius and the Swabian Syngramma — Strasburg mediates CHAPTER -The Tockenburg — An Assembly of the People — Reformation — The Grisons — Disputation at Ilantz — Results — Reformation at Zurich CHAPTER -The Oligarchs — Bernese Mandate of in Favor of the Papacy — Discussion at Baden — Regulations of the Discussion — Riches and Poverty — Eck and Oecolampadius — Discussion — Zwingle’s Share in the Discussion — Vaunts of the Romanists — Abusive Language of a Monk — Close of the Disputation CHAPTER -Consequences at Basle, Berne, Saint Gall, and other Places — Diet at Zurich — The small Cantons — Threats against Berne — Foreign Support BOOK THE FRENCH — CHAPTER Universality of Christianity — Enemies of the Reform in France — Heresy and Persecution in Dauphiny — A country Mansion — The Farel Family — Pilgrimage to the Holy Cross — Immorality and Superstition — William desires to become a Student CHAPTER -Louis XII and the Assembly of Tours — Francis and Margaret — Learned Men — Lefevre — His Courses at the University — Meeting between Lefevre and Farel — Farel’s Hesitation and Researches — First Awakening — Lefevre’s Prophecy — Teaches Justification by Faith — Objections — Disorder of the Colleges — Effects on Farel — Election — Sanctification of Life CHAPTER -Farel and the Saints — The University — Farel’s Conversion — Farel and Luther — Other Disciples — Date of the Reform in France — Spontaneous Rise of the different Reforms — Which was the first? — Lefevre’s Place CHAPTER -Character of Francis I — Commencement of Modern Times — Liberty and Obedience — Margaret of Valois — The Court — Briconnet, Count of Montbrun — Lefevre commends him to the Bible — Francis I and “his Children” — The Gospel brought to Margaret — Conversion — Adoration — Margaret’s Character CHAPTER -Enemies of the Reformation — Louisa — Duprat — Concordat of Bologna — Opposition of the Parliament and the University — The Sorbonne — Beda — His Character — His Tyranny — Berquin, the most learned of the Nobility — The Intriguers of the Sorbonne — Heresy of the three Magdalens — Luther condemned at Paris — Address of the Sorbonne to the King — Lefevre quits Paris for Meaux CHAPTER -Briconnet visits his Diocese — Reform — The Doctors persecuted in Paris — Philiberta of Savoy — Correspondence between Margaret and Briconnet CHAPTER -Beginning of the Church at Meaux — The Scriptures in French — The Artisans and the Bishop — Evangelical Harvest — The Epistles of St Paul sent to the King — Lefevre and Roma — The Monks before the Bishop — The Monks before the Parliament — Briconnet gives way CHAPTER -Lefevre and Farel persecuted — Difference between the Lutheran and Reformed Churches — Leclerc posts up his Placards — Leclerc branded — Berquin’s Zeal — Berquin before the Parliament — Rescued by Francis I — Mazurier’s Apostacy — Fall and Remorse of Pavanne — Metz — Chatelain — Peter Toussaint becomes attentive — Leclerc breaks the Images — Leclerc’s Condemnation and Torture — Martyrdom of Chatelain — Flight CHAPTER -Farel and his Brothers — Farel expelled from Gap — He preaches in the Fields — The Knight Anemond of Coct — The Minorito — Anemond quits France — Luther to the Duke of Savoy — Farel quits France CHAPTER -Catholicity of the Reformation — Friendship between Farel and Oecolampadius — Farel and Erasmus — Altercation — Farel demands a Disputation — Theses — Scripture and Faith — Discussion CHAPTER -New Campaign — Farel’s Call to the Ministry — An Outpost — Lyons — Sebville at Grenoble — Conventicles — Preaching at Lyons — Maigret in Prison — Margaret intimidated CHAPTER -The French at Basle — Encouragement of the Swiss — Fears of Discord — Translating and Printing at Basle — Bibles and Tracts disseminated in France CHAPTER -Progress at Montbellard — Resistance and Commotion — Toussaint leaves Oecolampadius — The Image of Saint Anthony — Death of Anemond — Strasburg — Lambert’s Letter to Francis I — Successive Defeats CHAPTER -Francis made Prisoner at Pavia — Reaction against the Reformation — Margaret’s Anxiety for her Brother — Louisa consults the Sorbonne — Commission against the Heretics — Briconnet brought to Trial — Appeal to the Parliament — Fall — Recantation — Lefevre accused — Condemnation and Flight — Lefevre at Strasburg — Louis Berquin imprisoned — Erasmus attacked — Schuch at Nancy — His Martyrdom — Struggle with Caroli — Sorrow of Pavanne — His Martyrdom — A Christian Hermit — Concourse at Notre Dame CHAPTER -A Student of Noyon — Character of young Calvin — Early Education — Consecrated to Theology — The Bishop gives him the Tonsure — He leaves Noyon on Account of the Plague — The two Calvins — Slanders — The Reformation creates new Languages — Persecution and Terror — Toussaint put in Prison — The Persecution more furious — Death of Du Blet, Moulin, and Papillon — God saves the Church — Margaret’s Project — Her Departure for Spai BOOK THE PROTEST AND THE CONFERENCE — Preface to Volume Fourth Page CHAPTER -Twofold Movement of Reform — Reform the Work of God — First Diet of Spires — Palladium of Reform — Firmness of the Reformers — Proceedings of the Diet — Report of the Commissioners — The Papacy painted and described by Luther — The Destruction of Jerusalem — Instructions of Seville — Change of Policy — Holy League — Religious Liberty proposed — Crisis of the Reformation Page CHAPTER -Italian War — The Emperor’s Manifesto — March on Rome — Revolt of the Troops — The Sack of Rome — German Humors — Violence of the Spaniards — Clement VII capitulates CHAPTER -Profitable Calm — Constitution of the Church — Philip of Hesse — The Monk of Marburg — Lambert’s Paradoxes — Friar Boniface — Disputation at Homburg — Triumph of the Gospel in Hesse — Constitution of the Church — Bishops — Synods — Two Elements of the Church — Luther on the Ministry — Organization of the Church — Luther’s Contradictions on State Interference — Luther to the Elector — German Mass — Melancthon’s Instructions — Disaffection — Visitation of the Reformed Churches — Results — The Reformation advances — Elizabeth of Brandenburg CHAPTER -Edict of Ofen — Persecutions — Winkler, Carpenter, and Keyser — Alarm in Germany — Pack’s Forgery — League of the Reformed Princes — Advice of the Reformers — Luther’s Pacific Counsel — Surprise of the Papist Princes — Pack’s Scheme not improbable — Vigor of the Reformation CHAPTER -Alliance between Charles and Clement VII — Omens — Hostility of the Papists — Arbitrary Proposition of Charles — Resolutions of the Diet — The Reformation in Danger — Decision of the Princes — Violence of Ferdinand — The Schism completed CHAPTER -The Protest — Principles of the Protest — Supremacy of the Gospel — Christian Union — Ferdinand rejects the Protest — Attempt at Conciliation — Exultation of the Papists — Evangelical Appeal — Christian Unity a Reality — Dangers of the Protestants — The Protestants leave Spires — The Princes, the true Reformers — Germany and Reform CHAPTER -Union necessary to Reform — Luther’s Doctrine on the Lord’s Supper — A Lutheran Warning — Proposed Conference at Marburg — Melancthon and Zwingle — Zwingle leaves Zurich — Rumors in Zurich — The Reformers at Marburg — Carlstadt’s Petition — Preliminary Discussions — Holy Ghost — Original Sin — Baptism — Luther, Melancthon, and Zwingle — Opening of the Conference — The Prayer of the Church — Hoc est Corpus Meum — Syllogism of Oecolampadius — The Flesh profiteth nothing — Lambert convinced — Luther’s Old Song — Agitation in the Conference — Arrival of new Deputies — Christ’s Humanity finite — Mathematics and popery — Testimony of the Fathers — Testimony of Augustine — Argument of the Velvet Cover — End of the Conference — The Landgrave mediates — Necessity of Union — Luther rejects Zwingle’s Hand — Sectarian Spirit of the Germans — Bucer’s Dilemma — Christian Charity prevails — Luther’s Report — Unity of Doctrine — Unity in Diversity — Signatures — Two Extremes — Three Views — Germ of Popery — Departure — Luther’s Dejection — Turks before Vienna — Luther’s Battle-sermon and Agony — Luther’s Firmness — Victory — Exasperation of the Papists — Threatening Prospects BOOK THE AUGSBURG CONFESSION CHAPTER Two striking Lessons — Charles V in Italy — The German Envoys — Their Boldness — The Landgrave’s Present — The Envoys under Arrest — Their Release and Departure — Meeting of Charles and Clement — Gattinara’s Proposition — Clement’s Arms — War imminent — Luther’s Objections — The Savior is coming — Charles’s conciliatory Language — The Emperor’s Motives CHAPTER -The Coronation — The Emperor made a Deacon — The Romish Church and the State — Alarm of the Protestants — Luther advocates Passive Resistance — Bruck’s noble Advice — Articles of Faith prepared — Luther’s Strong Tower — Luther at Coburg — Charles at Innspruck — Two Parties at Court — Gattinara — The King of Denmark won over by Charles — Piety of the Elector — Wiles of the Romanists CHAPTER -Augsburg — The Gospel preached — The Emperor’s Message — The Sermons prohibited — Firmness of the Elector — The Elector’s Reply — Preparation of the Confession — Luther’s Sinai — His Son and his Father — Luther’s Merriment — Luther’s Diet at Coburg — Saxony, a Paradise below — To the Bishops — Travail of the Church — Charles — The Pope’s Letter — Melancthon on Fasting — The Church, the Judge — The Landgrave’s catholic Spirit CHAPTER -Agitation in Augsburg — Violence of the Imperialists — Charles at Munich — Charles’s Arrival — The Nuncio’s Blessing — The Imperial Procession — Charles’s Appearance — Enters Augsburg — Te Deum — The Benediction — Charles desires the Sermons to be discontinued — Brandenburg offers his Head — The Emperor’s Request for Corpus Christi — Refusal of the Princes — Agitation of Charles — The Princes oppose Tradition — Procession of Corpus Christi — Exasperation of Charles CHAPTER -The Sermons prohibited — Compromise proposed and accepted — The Herald — Curiosity of the Citizens — The new Preachers — The Medley of Popery — Luther encourages the Princes — Veni Spiritus — Mass of the Holy Ghost — The Sermon — Opening of the Diet — The Elector’s Prayer — Insidious Plan of the Romanists — Valdez and Melancthon — No public Discussion — Evangelical Firmness prevails CHAPTER -The Elector’s Zeal — The Signing of the Confession — Courage of the Princes — Melancthon’s Weakness — The Legate’s Speech — Delays — The Confession in Danger — The Protestants are firm — Melancthon’s Despondency — Luther’s Prayer and Anxiety — Luther’s Texts — His Letter to Melancthon — Faith CHAPTER -The th June — The Palatine Chapel — Recollections and Contrast — The Confession — Prologue — Justification — The Church — Free Will and Works — Faith — Interest of the Hearers — The Princes become Preachers — The Confession — Abuses — Church and State — The two Governments — Epilogue — Argumentation — Prudence — Church and State — The Sword — Moderate Tone of the Confession — Its Defects — A New Baptism CHAPTER -Effect on the Romanists — Luther demands religious Liberty — His dominant Idea — Song of Triumph — Ingenuous Confessions — Hopes of the Protestants — Failure of the Popish Intrigues — The Emperor’s Council — Violent Discussions — A Refutation proposed — Its Authors — Rome and the civil Power — Perils of the Confessors — Melancthon’s Minimum — The Emperor’s Sister — Melancthon’s Fall — Luther opposes Concession — The Legate repels Melancthon — The Pope’s Decision — Question — Melancthon’s School-matters — Answer CHAPTER -The Refutation — Charles’s Dissatisfaction — Interview with the Princes — The Swiss at Augsburg — Tetrapolitan Confession — Zwingle’s Confession — Afflicting Divisions — The Elector’s Faith — His Peace — The Lion’s Skin — The Refutation — One Concession — Scripture and the Hierarchy — Imperial Commands — Interview between Melancthon and Campeggio — Policy of Charles — Stormy Meeting — Resolutions of the Consistory — The Prayers of the Church — Two Miracles — The Emperor’s Menace — The Princes’ Courage — The Mask — Negotiations — The Specters at Spires — Tumult in Augsburg CHAPTER -Philip of Hesse — Temptation — Union resisted — The Landgrave’s Dissimulation — The Emperor’s Order to the Protestants — Brandenburg’s threatening Speeches — Resolution of Philip of Hesse — Flight from Augsburg — Discovery — Charles’s Emotion — Revolution in the Diet — Metamorphosis — Unusual Moderation — Peace! Peace!

CHAPTER -The Mixed Commission — The Three Points — Romish Dissimulation — Abuses — Concessions — The Main Question — Bishops and Pope conceded — Danger of Concession — Opposition to the pretended Concord — Luther’s opposing Letters — The Word above the Church — Melancthon’s Blindness — Papist Infatuation — A new Commission — Be Men and not Women — The Two Phantoms — Concessions — The Three Points — The great Antithesis — Failure of Conciliation — The Gordian Knot — A Council granted — Charles’s Summons — Menaces — Altercations — Peace or War — Romanism concedes — Protestantism resists — Luther recalls his Friends CHAPTER -The Elector’s Preparatives and Indignation — Recess of Augsburg — Irritating Language — Apology of the Confession — Intimidation — Final Interview — Messages of Peace — Exasperation of the Papists — Restoration of Popery — Tumult in the Church — Union of the Churches — The Pope and the Emperor — Close of the Diet — Armaments — Attack on Geneva — Joy of the Evangelicals — Establishment of Protestantism BOOK SWITZERLAND — CONQUESTS — CHAPTER Originality of the Swiss Reform — Change — Three Periods of Reform — Switzerland Romande — The two Movements in the Church — Aggressive Spirit — The Schoolmaster — Farel’s new Baptism — Mysticism and Scholasticism — A Door is opened — Opposition — Lausanne — Manners of the Clergy — Farel to Galeotto — Farel and the Monk — The Tribunal — The Monk cries for Pardon — Opposition of the Ormonds — A false Convert — Christian Unity CHAPTER -State — Religion in Berne — Irresolution of Berne — Almanack of Heretics — Evangelical Majority — Haller — Zwingle’s Signal — The radicals in Berne — Victory of the Gospel — Papist Provocations — The City Companies — Proposed Disputation — Objections of the Forest Cantons — The Church, the Judge of Controversies — Unequal Contest — Zwingle — A Christian Band — The Cordeliers’ Church — Opening of the Conference — The sole Head — Unity of Error — A Priest converted at the Altar — St Vincent’s Day — The Butchers — A strange Argument — Papist Bitterness — Necessity of Reform — Zwingle’s Sermon — Visit of the King of Kings — Edict of Reform — Was the Reformation political?

CHAPTER -The Reform accepted by the People — Faith, Purity, and Charity — First Evangelical Communion — Bernese Proposition to the Diet — Cavern, and Head of Beatus — Threatening Storm from the Mountains — Revolt — Confusion in Berne — Unterwalden crosses the Brunig — Energy of Berne — Victory — Political Advantages CHAPTER -Reformation of St Gall — Nuns of St Catherine — Reformation of Glaris, Berne, Appenzell, the Grisons, Schaffhausen, and the Rhine District — A Popish Miracle — Obstacles in Basle — Zeal of the Citizens — Oecolampadius marries — Witticism of Erasmus — First Action — Half- Measures — Petition of the Reformed CHAPTER -Crisis in Basle — Half-measures rejected — Reformed Propositions — A Night of Terror — Idols broken in the Cathedral — The Hour of Madness — Idols broken in all the Churches — Reform legalized — Erasmus in Basle — A great Transformation — Revolution and Reformation CHAPTER -Farel’s Commission — Farel at Lausanne and Morat — Neufchatel — Farel preaches at Serriere — Enters Neufchatel — Sermon — The Monks — Farel’s Preaching — Popery in Neufchatel — Canons and Monks unite — Farel at Morat and in the Vully — Reformation of the Bishopric of Basle — Farel again in Neufchatel — Placards — The Hospital Chapel — Civil Power invoked by the Romanists CHAPTER -Valangin — Guillemette de Vergy — Farel goes to the Val de Ruz — The Mass interrupted — Farel dragged to the River — Farel in Prison — Apostles and Reformers compared — Farel preaching at Neufchatel — Installed in the Cathedral — A Whirlwind sweeps over the People — The Idols destroyed — Interposition of the Governor — Triumph of the Reformed CHAPTER -The Romanists demand a Ballot — The Bernese in Favor of the Reform — Both Parties come to the Poll — The Prudhommes of Neufchatel — Proposed Delay — The Romanists grasp the Sword — The Voting — Majority for Reform — Protestantism perpetual — The Image of Saint John — A Miracle — Retreat of the Canons — Popery and the Gospel CHAPTER -Reaction preparing — Failure of the Plot — Farel in Valangin and near the Lake — De Bely at Fontaine — Farel’s Sufferings — Marcourt at Valangin — Disgraceful Expedient — Vengeance — The Reform established — French Switzerland characterized — Gathering Tempest BOOK SWITZERLAND — CATASTROPHE — CHAPTER Two great Lessons — Christian Warfare — Zwingle, Pastor, Statesman, and General — His noble Character — Persecutions — Swiss Catholics seek an Alliance with Austria — Great Dissatisfaction — Deputation to the Forest Cantons — Zwingle’s Proposal — Moderation of Berne — Keyser’s Martyrdom — Zwingle and War — Zwingle’s Error CHAPTER -Free Preaching of the Gospel in Switzerland — Zwingle supports the common Bailiwicks — War — Zwingle joins the Army — The Zurich Army threatens Zug — The Landamman Aebli — Bernese Interposition — Zwingle’s Opposition — Swiss Cordiality — Order in the Zurich Camp — A Conference — Peace restored — Austrian Treaty torn — Zwingle’s Hymn — Nuns of Saint Catherine CHAPTER -Conquests of Reform in Schaffhausen and Zurzack — Reform in Glaris — Today the Cowl, Tomorrow the Reverse — Italian Bailiwicks — The Monk of Como — Egidio’s Hope for Italy — Call of the Monk of Locarno — Hopes of reforming Italy — The Monks of Wettingen — Abbey of Saint Gall — Kilian Kouffi — Saint Gall recovers its Liberty — The Reform in Soleure — Miracle of Saint Ours — Popery triumphs — The Grisons invaded by the Spaniards — Address of the Ministers to the Romish Cantons — God’s Word the Means of Unity — Oecolampadius for spiritual Influence — Autonomy of the Church CHAPTER -Zwingle and the Christian State — Zwingle’s double Part — Zwingle and Luther in Relation to Politics — Philip of Hesse and the Free Cities — Projected Union between Zwingle and Luther — Zwingle’s political Action — Project of Alliance against the Emperor — Zwingle advocates active Resistance — He destines the Imperial Crown for Philip — Faults of the Reformation — Embassy to Venice — Giddiness of the Reformation — Projected Alliance with France — Zwingle’s Plan of Alliance — Approaching Ruin — Slanders in the Five Cantons — Violence — Mysterious Paper — Berne and Basle vote for Peace — General Diet at Baden — Evangelical Diet at Zurich — Political Reformation of Switzerland — Activity of Zurich CHAPTER -Diet of Arau — Helvetic Unity — Berne proposes to close the Markets — Opposition of Zurich — Proposition agreed to and published — Zwingle’s War Sermon — Blockade of the Waldstettes — No Bread, no Wine, no Salt — Indignation of the Forest Cantons — The Roads blockaded — Processions — Cry of Despair — France tries to conciliate — Diet at Bremgarten — Hope — The Cantons inflexible — The Strength of Zurich broken — Discontent — Zwingle’s false Position — Zwingle demands his Dismission — The Council remonstrate — He remains — Zwingle at Bremgarten — Zwingle’s Farewell to Bullinger — Zwingle’s Agony — The Forest Cantons reject all Conciliation — Frightful Omens — The Comet — Zwingle’s Tranquillity CHAPTER -The Five Cantons decide for War — Deceitful Calm — Fatal Inactivity — Zurich forewarned — Banner of Lucerne planted — Manifesto — The Bailiwicks pillaged — The Monastery of Cappel — Letter — Infatuation of Zurich — New Warnings — The War begins — The Tocsin — A fearful Night — The War — Banner and Army of Zurich — Zwingle’s Departure — Zwingle’s Horse — Anna Zwingle CHAPTER -The Scene of War — The Enemy at Zug — Declaration of War — Council — Army of the Forest Cantons appears — The first Gun fired — Zwingle’s Gravity and Sorrow — Zurich Army ascending the Albis — Halt and Council at the Beech Tree — They quicken their March — Jauch’s Reconnaissance — His Appeal — Ambuscade CHAPTER -Unforeseen Change — The whole Army advances — Universal Disorder — The Banneret’s Death — The Banner in Danger — The Banner saved — Terrible Slaughter — Slaughter of the Pastors — Zwingle’s last Words — Barbarity of the Victors — The Furnace of Trial — Zwingle’s dying Moments — Day after the Battle — Homage and Outrage CHAPTER -Consternation in Zurich — Violence of the Populace — Grief and Distress — Zwingle is dead! — Funeral Oration — Army of Zurich — Another Reverse on the Goubel — Inactivity of the Bernese — Hopes and Plan of Charles V — End of the War — Treaty of Peace CHAPTER -Restoration of Popery at Bremgarten and Rapperschwyl — Priests and Monks everywhere — Sorrow of Oecolampadius — A tranquil Scene — Peaceful Death of Oecolampadius — Henry Bullinger at Zurich — Contrition and Exultation — The great Lesson — Conclusion BOOK ENGLAND BEFORE THE REFORMATION Preface to Volume Fifth Page a CHAPTER -Introduction — Work of the Sixteenth Century — Unity and Diversity — Necessity of considering the entire Religious History of England — Establishment of Christianity in Great Britain — Formation of Ecclesiastical Catholicism in the Roman Empire — Spiritual Christianity received by Britain — Slavery and Conversion of Succat — His Mission to Ireland — Anglo-Saxons re-establish Paganism in England — Columba at Iona — Evangelical Teaching — Presbytery and Episcopacy in Great Britain — Continental Missions of the Britons — An Omission Page CHAPTER -Pope Gregory the Great — Desires to reduce Britain — Policy of Gregory and Augustine — Arrival of the Mission — Appreciation — Britain superior to Rome — Dionoth at Bangor — First and Second Romish Aggressions — Anguish of the Britons — Pride of Rome — Rome has recourse to the Sword — Massacre — Saint Peter scourges an Archbishop — Oswald — His Victory — Corman — Mission of Oswald and Aidan — Death of Oswald CHAPTER -Character of Oswy — Death of Aidan — Wilfrid at Rome — At Oswald’s Court — Finan and Colman — Independence of the Church attacked — Oswy’s Conquests and Troubles — Synodus Pharensis — Cedda — Degeneration — The Disputation — Peter, the Gatekeeper — Triumph of Rome — Grief of the Britons — Popedom organized in England — Papal Exultation — Archbishop Theodore — Cedda re-ordained — Discord in the Church — Disgrace and Treachery of Wilfrid — His End — Scotland attacked — Adamnan — Iona resists — A King converted by Architects — The Monk Egbert at Iona — His History — Monkish Visions — Fall of Iona CHAPTER -Clement — Struggle between a Scotchman and an Englishman — Word of God only — Clement’s Success — His Condemnation — Virgil and the Antipodes — John Scotus and Philosophical Religion — Alfred and the Bible — Darkness and Popery — William the Conqueror — Wulston at Edward’s Tomb — Struggle between William and Hildebrand — The Pope yields — Caesaropapia CHAPTER -Anselm’s Firmness — Becket’s Austerity — The King scourged — John becomes the Pope’s Vassal — Collision between Popery and Liberty — The Vassal King ravages his Kingdom — Religion of the Senses and Superstition CHAPTER -Reaction — Grostete — Principles of Reform — Contest with the Pope — Sewal — Progress of the Nation — Opposition to the Papacy — Conversion of Bradwardine — Grace is Supreme — Edward III — Statutes of Provisors and Praemunire CHAPTER -The Mendicant Friars — Their Disorders and Popular Indignation — Wickliffe — His Success — Speeches of the Peers against the Papal Tribute — Agreement of Bruges — Courtenay and Lancaster — Wickliffe before the Convocation — Altercation between Lancaster and Courtenay — Riot — Three Briefs against Wickliffe — Wickliffe at Lambeth — Mission of the Poor Priests — Their Preachings and Persecutions — Wickliffe and the Four Regents CHAPTER -The Bible — Wickliffe’s Translation — Effects of its Publication — Opposition of the Clergy — Wickliffe’s Fourth Phasis — Transubstantiation — Excommunication — Wickliffe’s Firmness — Wat Tyler — The Synod — The Condemned Propositions — Wickliffe’s Petition — Wickliffe before the Primate at Oxford — Wickliffe summoned to Rome — His Answer — The Trialogue — His Death — And Character — His Teaching — His Ecclesiastical Views — A Prophecy CHAPTER -The Wickliffites — Call for Reform — Richard II — The First Martyr — Lord Cobham — Appears before Henry V — Before the Archbishop — His Confession and Death — The Lollards CHAPTER -Learning at Florence — The Tudors — Erasmus visits England — Sir Thomas More — Dean Colet — Erasmus and young Henry — Prince Arthur and Catherine — Marriage and Death — Catherine betrothed to Henry — Accession of Henry VIII — Enthusiasm of the Learned — Erasmus recalled to England — Cromwell before the Pope — Catherine proposed to Henry — Their Marriage and Court — Tournaments — Henry’s Danger CHAPTER -The Pope excites to War — Colet’s Sermon at St Paul’s — The Flemish Campaign — Marriage of Louis XII and Princess Mary — Letter from Anne Boleyn — Marriage of Brandon and Mary — Oxford — Sir Thomas More at Court — Attack upon the Monasteries — Colet’s Household — He preaches Reform — The Greeks and Trojans CHAPTER -Wolsey — His first Commission — His Complaisance and Dioceses — Cardinal, Chancellor, and Legate — Ostentation and Necromancy — His Spies and Enmity — Pretensions of the Clergy CHAPTER -The Wolves — Richard Hun — A Murder — Verdict of the Jury — Hun condemned, and his Character vindicated — The Gravesend Passageboat — A Festival disturbed — Brown tortured — Visit from his Wife — A Martyr — Character of Erasmus — and — Erasmus goes to Basle BOOK THE REVIVAL OF THE CHURCH CHAPTER Four reforming Powers — Which reformed England? — Papal Reform? — Episcopal Reform? — Royal Reform? — What is required in a legitimate Reform? — The Share of the Kingly Power — Share of the Episcopal Authority — High and Low Church — Political Events — The Greek and Latin New Testament — Thoughts of Erasmus — Enthusiasm and Anger — Desire of Erasmus — Clamors of the Priests — Their Attack at Court — Astonishment of Erasmus — His Labors for this Work — Edward Lee; his Character — Lee’s Tragedy — Conspiracy CHAPTER -Effects of the New Testament in the Universities — Conversations — A Cambridge Fellow — Bilney buys the New Testament — The First Passage — His Conversion — Protestantism, the Fruit of the Gospel — The Vale of the Severn — William Tyndale — Evangelization at Oxford — Bilney teaches at Cambridge — Fryth — Is Conversion possible? — True Consecration — The Reformation has begun CHAPTER -Alarm of the Clergy — The Two Days — Thomas Man’s Preaching — True real Presence — Persecutions at Coventry — Standish preaches at St Paul’s — His Petition to the King and Queen — His Arguments and Defeat — Wolsey’s Ambition — First Overtures — Henry and Francis Candidates for the Empire — Conference between Francis I and Sir T Boleyn — The Tiara promised to Wolsey — The Cardinal’s Intrigues with Charles and Francis CHAPTER -Tyndale — Sodbury Hall — Sir John and Lady Walsh — Table-talk — The Holy Scriptures — The Images — The Anchor of Faith — A Roman Camp — Preaching of Faith and Works — Tyndale accused by the Priests — They tear up what he has planted — Tyndale resolves to translate the Bible — His first Triumph — The Priests in the Taverns — Tyndale summoned before the Chancellor of Worcester — Consoled by an aged Doctor — Attacked by a Schoolman — His Secret becomes known — He leaves Sodbury Hall CHAPTER -Luther’s Works in England — Consultation of the Bishops — The Bull of Leo X published in England — Luther’s Books burnt — Letter of Henry VIII — He undertakes to write against Luther — Cry of Alarm — Tradition and Sacramentalism — Prudence of Sir T More — The Book presented to the Pope — Defender of the Faith — Exultation of the King CHAPTER -Wolsey’s Machinations to obtain the Tiara — He gains Charles V — Alliance between Henry and Charles — Wolsey offers to command the Troops — Treaty of Bruges — Henry believes himself King of France — Victories of Francis I — Death of Leo X CHAPTER -The Just Men of Lincolnshire — Their Assemblies and Teaching — Agnes and Morden — Itinerant Libraries — Polemical Conversations — Sarcasm — Royal Decree and Terror — Depositions and Condemnations — Four Martyrs — A Conclave — Charles consoles Wolsey CHAPTER -Character of Tyndale — He arrives in London — He preaches — The Cloth and the Ell — The Bishop of London gives Audience to Tyndale — He is dismissed — A Christian Merchant of London — Spirit of Love in the Reformation — Tyndale in Monmouth’s House — Fryth helps him to translate the New Testament — Importunities of the Bishop of Lincoln — Persecution in London — Tyndale’s Resolution — He departs — His Indignation against the Prelates — His Hopes CHAPTER -Bilney at Cambridge — Conversions — The University Cross-bearer — A Leicestershire Farmer — A Party of Students — Superstitious Practices — An obstinate Papist — The Sophists — Latimer attacks Stafford — Bilney’s Resolution — Latimer hears Bilney’s Confession — Confessor converted — New Life in Latimer — Bilney preaches Grace — Nature of the Ministry — Latimer’s Character and Teaching — Works of Charity — Three Classes of Adversaries — Clark and Dalaber CHAPTER -Wolsey seeks the Tiara — Clement VII is elected — Wolsey’s Dissimulation — Charles offers France to Henry — Pace’s Mission on this Subject — Wolsey reforms the Convents — His secret Alliances — Treaty between France and England — Taxation and Insurrection — False Charges against the Reformers — Latimer’s Defense — Tenterden Steeple CHAPTER -Tyndale at Hamburg — First two Gospels — Embarrassment — Tyndale at Wittemberg — At Cologne — The New Testament at Press — Sudden Interruption — Cochlaeus at Cologne — Rupert’s Manuscripts — Discovery of Cochlaeus — His Inquiries — His Alarm — Rincke and the Senate’s Prohibition — Consternation and Decision of Tyndale — Cochlaeus writes to England — Tyndale ascends the Rhine — Prints two Editions at Worms — Tyndale’s Prayer CHAPTER -Worms and Cambridge — St Paul resuscitated — Latimer’s Preaching — Never Man spake like this Man — Joy and Vexation at Cambridge — Sermon by Prior Buckingham — Irony — Latimer’s Reply to Buckingham — The Students threatened — Latimer preaches before the Bishop — He is forbidden to preach — The most zealous of Bishops — Barnes the Restorer of Letters — Bilney undertakes to convert him — Barnes offers his Pulpit to Latimer — Fryth’s Thirst for God — Christmas Eve, — Storm against Barnes — Ferment in the Colleges — Germany at Cambridge — Meetings at Oxford — General Expectation BOOK THE ENGLISH NEW TESTAMENT AND THE COURT OF ROME CHAPTER Church and State essentially distinct — Their fundamental Principles — What restores Life to the Church — Separation from Rome necessary — Reform and Liberty — The New Testament crosses the Sea — Is hidden in London — Garret’s Preaching and Zeal — Dissemination of Scripture — What the People find in it — The Effects it produces — Tyndale’s Explanations — Roper, More’s Son-in-law — Garret carries Tyndale’s Testament to Oxford — Henry and his Valet — The Supplication of the Beggars — Two Sorts of Beggars — Evils caused by Priests — More’s Supplications of the Souls in Purgatory CHAPTER -The two Authorities — Commencement of the Search — Garret at Oxford — His Flight — His Return and Imprisonment — Escapes and takes Refuge with Dalaber — Garret and Dalaber at Prayer — The Magnificat — Surprise among the Doctors — Clark’s Advice — Fraternal Love at Oxford — Alarm of Dalaber — His Arrest and Examination — He is tortured — Garret and twenty Fellows imprisoned — The Cellar — Condemnation and Humiliation CHAPTER -Persecution at Cambridge — Barnes arrested — A grand Search — Barnes at Wolsey’s Palace — Interrogated by the Cardinal — Conversation between Wolsey and Barnes — Barnes threatened with the Stake — His Fall and public Penance — Richard Bayfield — His Faith and Imprisonment — Visits Cambridge — Joins Tyndale — The Confessors in the Cellar at Oxford — Four of them die — The rest liberated CHAPTER -Luther’s Letter to the King — Henry’s Anger — His Reply — Luther’s Resolution — Persecutions — Barnes escapes — Proclamations against the New Testament — W Roy to Caiaphas — Third Edition of the New Testament — The Triumph of Law and Liberty — Hackett attacks the Printer — Hackett’s Complaints — A Seizure — The Year in England CHAPTER -Wolsey desires to be revenged — The Divorce suggested — Henry’s Sentiments towards the Queen — Wolsey’s first Steps — Longland’s Proceedings — Refusal of Margaret of Valois — Objection of the Bishop of Tarbes — Henry’s Uneasiness — Catherine’s Alarm — Mission to Spain CHAPTER -Anne Boleyn appointed Maid of Honor to Catherine — Lord Percy becomes attached to her — Wolsey separates them — Anne enters Margaret’s Household — Siege of Rome; Cromwell — Wolsey’s Intercession for the Popedom — He demands the Hand of Renee of France for Henry — Failure — Anne reappears at Court — Repels the King’s Advances — Henry’s Letter — He resolves to accelerate the Divorce — Two Motives which induce Anne to refuse the Crown — Wolsey’s Opposition CHAPTER -Bilney’s Preaching — His Arrest — Arthur’s Preaching and Imprisonment — Bilney’s Examination — Contest between the Judge and the Prisoner — Bilney’s Weakness and Fall — His Terrors — Two Wants — Arrival of the Fourth Edition of the New Testament — Joy among the Believers CHAPTER -The Papacy intercepts the Gospel — The King consults Sir Thomas More — Ecclesiastical Conferences about the Divorce — The Universities — Clarke — The Nun of Kent — Wolsey decides to do the King’s Will — Mission to the Pope — Four Documents — Embarrassment of Charles V — Francis Philip at Madrid — Distress and Resolution of Charles — He turns away from the Reformation — Conference at the Castle of St Angelo — Knight arrives in Italy — His Flight — Treaty between the Pope and the Emperor — Escape of the Pope — Confusion of Henry VIII — Wolsey’s Orders — His Entreaties CHAPTER -The English Envoys at Orvieto — Their Oration to the Pope — Clement gains Time — The Envoys and Cardinal Sanctorum Quatuor — Stratagem of the Pope — Knight discovers it and returns — The Transformations of Antichrist — The English obtain a new Document — Fresh Stratagem — Demand of a second Cardinal-legate — The Pope’s new Expedient — End of the Campaign CHAPTER -Disappointment in England — War declared against Charles V — Wolsey desires to get him deposed by the Pope — A new Scheme — Embassy of Fox and Gardiner — Their Arrival at Orvieto — Their first Interview with Clement — The Pope reads a Treatise by Henry — Gardiner’s Threats and Clement’s Promise — The Modern Fabius — Fresh Interview and Menaces — The Pope has not the Key — Gardiner’s Proposition — Difficulties and Delays of the Cardinals — Gardiner’s last Blows — Reverses of Charles V in Italy — The Pope’s Terror and Concession — The Commission granted — Wolsey demands the Engagement — A Loophole — The Pope’s Distress CHAPTER -Fox’s Report to Henry and Anne — Wolsey’s Impression — He demands the Decretal — One of the Cardinal’s petty Manoeuvers — He sets his Conscience at Rest — Gardiner fails at Rome — Wolsey’s new Perfidy — The King’s Anger against the Pope — Sir T More predicts Religious Liberty — Immorality of Ultramontane Socialism — Erasmus invited — Wolsey’s last Flight — Energetic Efforts at Rome — Clement grants all — Wolsey triumphs — Union of Rome and England BOOK THE TWO DIVORCES CHAPTER Progress of the Reformation — The two Divorces — Entreaties to Anne Boleyn — The Letters in the Vatican — Henry to Anne — Henry’s Second Letter — Third — Fourth — Wolsey’s Alarm — His fruitless Proceedings — He turns — The Sweating Sickness — Henry’s Fears — New Letters to Anne — Anne falls sick; her Peace — Henry writes to her — Wolsey’s Terror — Campeggio does not arrive — All dissemble at Court CHAPTER -Coverdale and Inspiration — He undertakes to translate the Scriptures — His Joy and Spiritual Songs — Tyball and the Laymen — Coverdale preaches at Bumpstead — Revival at Colchester — Incomplete Societies and the New Testament — Persecution — Monmouth arrested and released CHAPTER -Political Changes — Fresh Instructions from the Pope to Campeggio — His Delays — He unbosoms himself to Francis — A Prediction — Arrival of Campeggio — Wolsey’s Uneasiness — Henry’s Satisfaction — The Cardinal’s Project — Campeggio’s Reception — First Interview with the Queen and with the King — Useless Efforts to make Campeggio part with the Decretal — The Nuncio’s Conscience — Public Opinion — Measures taken by the King — His Speech to the Lords and Aldermen — Festivities — Wolsey seeks French Support — Contrariety CHAPTER -True Catholicity — Wolsey — Harman’s Matter — West sent to Cologne — Labors of Tyndale and Fryth — Rincke at Frankfort — He makes a Discovery — Tyndale at Marburg — West returns to England — His Tortures in the Monastery CHAPTER -Necessity of the Reformation — Wolsey’s Earnestness with Da Casale — An Audience with Clement VII — Cruel Position of the Pope — A Judas Kiss — A new Brief — Bryan and Vannes sent to Rome — Henry and Du Bellay — Wolsey’s Reasons against the Brief — Excitement in London — Metamorphosis — Wolsey’s Decline — His Anguish CHAPTER -The Pope’s Illness — Wolsey’s Desire — Conference about the Members of the Conclave — Wolsey’s Instructions — The Pope recovers — Speech of the English Envoys to the Pope — Clement willing to abandon England — The English demand the Pope’s Denial of the Brief — Wolsey’s Alarm — Intrigues — Bryan’s Clearsightedness — Henry’s Threats — Wolsey’s new Efforts — He calls for an Appeal to Rome, and retracts — Wolsey and Du Bellay at Richmond — The Ship of the State CHAPTER -Discussion between the Evangelicals and the Catholics — Union of Learning and Life — The Laity: Tewkesbury — His Appearance before the Bishops’ Court — He is tortured — Two Classes of Opponents — A Theological Duel — Scripture and the Church — Emancipation of the Mind — Mission to the Low Countries — Tyndale’s Embarrassment — Tonstall wishes to buy the Books — Packington’s Stratagem — Tyndale departs for Antwerp — His Shipwreck — Arrival at Hamburg — Meets Coverdale CHAPTER -The Royal Session — Sitting of the th June; the Queen’s Protest — Sitting of the st June — Summons to the King and Queen — Catherine’s Speech — She retires — Impression on the Audience — The King’s Declaration — Wolsey’s Protest — Quarrel between the Bishops — New Sitting — Apparition to the Maid of Kent — Wolsey chafed by Henry — The Earl of Wiltshire at Wolsey’s — Private Conference between Catherine and the two Legates CHAPTER -The Trial resumed — Catherine summoned — Twelve Articles — The Witnesses’ Evidence — Arthur and Catherine really married — Campeggio opposes the Argument of Divine Right — Other Arguments — The Legates required to deliver Judgment — Their Tergiversations — Change in Men’s Minds — Final Session — General Expectation — Adjournment during Harvest — Campeggio excuses this Impertinence — the King’s Indignation — Suffolk’s Violence — Wolsey’s Reply — He is ruined — General Accusations — The Cardinal turns to an Episcopal Life CHAPTER -Anne Boleyn at Hever — She reads the Obedience of a Christian Man — Is recalled to Court — Miss Gainsford and George Zouch — Tyndale’s Book converts Zouch — Zouch in the Chapel-Royal — The Book seized — Anne applies to Henry — The King reads the Book — Pretended Influence of the Book on Henry — The Court at Woodstock — The Park and its Goblins — Henry’s Esteem for Anne CHAPTER -Embarrassment of the Pope — The Triumphs of Charles decide him — He traverses the Cause to Rome — Wolsey’s Dejection — Henry’s Wrath — His Fears — Wolsey obtains Comfort — Arrival of the two Legates at Grafton — Wolsey’s Reception by Henry — Wolsey and Norfolk at Dinner — Henry with Anne — Conference between the King and the Cardinal — Wolsey’s Joy and Grief — The Supper and Euston — Campeggio’s Farewell Audience — Wolsey’s Disgrace — Campeggio at Dover — He is accused by the Courtiers — Leaves England — Wolsey foresees his own Fall and that of the Papacy CHAPTER -A Meeting at Waltham — Youth of Thomas Cranmer — His early Education — Studies Scripture for three years — His Functions as Examiner — The Supper at Waltham — New View of the Divorce — Fox communicates it to Henry — Cranmer’s Vexation — Conference with the King — Cranmer at the Boleyns CHAPTER -Wolsey in the Court of Chancery — Accused by the Dukes — Refuses to give up the Great Seal — His Despair — He gives up the Seal — Order to depart — His inventory — Alarm — The Scene of Departure — Favorable Message from the King — Wolsey’s Joy — His Fool — Arrival at Esher CHAPTER -Thomas More elected Chancellor — A lay Government one of the great Facts of the Reformation — Wolsey accused of subordinating England to the Pope — He implores the King’s Clemency — His Condemnation — Cromwell at Esher — His Character — He sets out for London — Sir Christopher Hales recommends him to the King — Cromwell’s Interview with Henry in the Park — A new Theory — Cromwell elected Member of Parliament — Opened by Sir Thomas More — Attack on ecclesiastical Abuses — Reforms pronounced by the Convocation — Three Bills — Rochester attacks them — Resistance of the House of Commons — Struggles — Henry sanctions the three Bills — Alarm of the Clergy and Disturbances CHAPTER -The last Hour — More’s Fanaticism — Debates in Convocation — Royal Proclamation — The Bishop of Norwich — Sentences condemned — Latimer’s Opposition — The New Testament burnt — The Persecution begins — Hitton — Bayfield — Tonstall and Packington — Bayfield arrested — The Rector Patmore — Lollards’ Tower — Tyndale and Patmore — a Musician — Freese the Painter — Placards and Martyrdom of Bennet — Thomas More and John Petit — Bilney CHAPTER -Wolsey’s Terror — Impeachment by the Peers — Cromwell saves him — The Cardinal’s Illness — Ambition returns to him — His Practices in Yorkshire — He is arrested by Northumberland — His Departure — Arrival of the Constable of the Tower — Wolsey at Leicester Abbey — Persecuting Language — He dies — Three Movements: Supremacy, Scripture, and Faith PREFACE.

The history of one of the greatest revolutions that has ever been accomplished in human affairs — of a mighty impulse communicated to the world three centuries ago, and whose influence is still visible on every side — and not the history of a mere party, is the object of my present undertaking. The history of the Reformation is distinct from that of Protestantism. In the former every thing bears the mark of a regeneration of the human race — of a religious and social change emanating from God himself. In the latter we too often witness a glaring degeneracy from first principles, the struggles of parties, a sectarian spirit, and the traces of petty individualities. The history of Protestantism may have an interest for Protestants only; the history of the Reformation addresses itself to all Christians, or rather to all mankind.

An historian may choose his subject in the wide field presented to his labors: he may describe the great events which have changed the aspect of a people or of the world; or on the other hand he may record that tranquil onward course of a nation, of the Church, or of mankind, which usually succeeds every great social change. Both these departments of history are of vast importance; yet public interest has ever been more strongly attracted to those epochs which under the name of revolutions, have given fresh life to a nation, or created a new era for society in general.

It is a transformation of the latter kind that, with very humble powers, I have undertaken to describe, not without a hope that the beauty of the subject may compensate for my own deficiencies. The term “revolution,” which I here apply to it, has of late fallen into discredit with many individuals, who almost confound it with revolt. But they are wrong: for a revolution is merely a change in the affairs of men, — something new unfolded (revolutus) from the bosom of humanity; and this very word, previous to the end of the last century, was more frequently used in a good than in a bad sense: a happy, a wonderful revolution, were the terms employed. The Reformation was quite the opposite of a revolt: it was the re-establishment of the principles of primitive Christianity. It was a regenerative movement with respect to all that was destined to revive; a conservative movement as regards all that will exist for ever. While Christianity and the Reformation established the great principle of the equality of souls in the eyes of God, and overthrew the usurpations of a haughty priesthood that assumed to place itself between the Creator and his creature, they both laid down this fundamental rule of social order, that all power is derived from God, and called upon all men to “love the brotherhood, fear God, and honor the king.”

The Reformation is eminently distinguished from all the revolutions of antiquity, and from most of those of modern times. Political changes — the consolidation or the overthrow of the power of the one or of the many — were the object of the latter. The love of truth, of holiness, of immortality, was the simple yet mighty spring which set in motion that which I have to describe. It indicates a forward movement in human nature.

In truth, man advances — he improves, whenever he aims at higher objects, and seeks for immaterial and imperishable blessings, instead of pursuing material, temporal, and earthly advantages. The Reformation is one of the brightest days of this glorious progress. It is a guarantee that the new struggle, which is receiving its accomplishment under our own eyes, will terminate on the side of truth, in a purer, more spiritual, and still nobler triumph.

Primitive Christianity and the Reformation are the two greatest revolutions in history. They were not limited to one nation only, as were the various political movements that history records; but their influence extended over many, and their effects are destined to be felt to the utmost limits of the world.

Primitive Christianity and the Reformation are one and the same revolution, brought about at different epochs and under different circumstances. Although not alike in their secondary features, they are identical in their primary and chief characteristics. One is a repetition of the other. The former put an end to the old world; the latter began the new: between them lie the Middle Ages. One is the parent of the other; and although the daughter may in some instances bear marks of inferiority, she had characters that are peculiarly her own.

One of them is the rapidity of its action. The great revolutions that have led to the fall of a monarchy, or wrought an entire change in a political system, or which have launched the human mind on a new career of development, have been slowly and gradually prepared. The oldestablished power has long been undermined: one by one its chief supports have given way. This was the case at the introduction of Christianity. But the Reformation, at the first glance, seems to present a different aspect.

The church of Rome under Leo X appears in the height of its power and glory. A monk speaks — and in one half of Europe this mighty glory and power crumble into dust. In this revolution we are reminded of the words by which the Son of God foretells his second advent: “As the lightning cometh out of the east, and shineth even to the west, so shall the coming of the Son of Man be.”

Such rapidity of action is inexplicable to those who see in this event nothing more than a reform; who look upon it simply as an act of critical sagacity, which consisted in making a choice among various doctrines — rejecting some, preserving others, and arranging those which were retained so as to combine them into a new system.

But how could a whole people, how could many nations have so promptly executed this laborious task? How could this critical examination have kindled the fire and enthusiasm so necessary for great and above all for sudden revolutions? The Reformation, as its history will show, was altogether different. It was a new outpouring of that life which Christianity brought into the world. It was the triumph of the greatest of its doctrines, — of that which animates all who embrace it with the purest and most intense enthusiasm, — the doctrine of Faith, the doctrine of Grace. Had the Reformation been what many Romanists and Protestants of our days imagine it, — had it been that negative system of negative reason which, like a fretful child, rejects whatever is displeasing to it, and disowns the grand truths and leading ideas of universal Christianity, it would never have crossed the threshold of the schools, or been known beyond the narrow limits of the cloister or perhaps of the friar’s cell. But with Protestantism, as many understand the word, it had no connection. Far from being an emaciated, an enervated body, it rose up like a man full of strength and energy.

Two considerations will account for the suddenness and extent of this revolution. One must be sought in God; the other among men. The impulse was given by an invisible and mighty hand: the change accomplished was the work of Omnipotence. An impartial and attentive observer, who looks beyond the surface, must necessarily be led to this conclusion. But as God works by second causes, another task remains for the historian. Many circumstances which have often passed unnoticed, gradually prepared the world for the great transformation of the sixteenth century, so that the human mind was ripe when the hour of its emancipation arrived.

It is the historian’s duty to combine these two great elements in the picture he presents to his readers. This has been my endeavor in the following pages. I shall be easily understood so long as I am occupied in investigating the secondary causes that concurred in producing the revolution I have undertaken to describe. Many perhaps will understand me less clearly, and will even be tempted to charge me with superstition, when I ascribe the completion of the work to God. It is a conviction, however, that I fondly cherish. These volumes, as well as the motto I have prefixed to them, lay down in the chief and foremost place this simple and pregnant principle: God in History. But as it is a principle that has been generally neglected and sometimes disputed, it may be right for me to explain my views on this subject, and by this means justify the method I have adopted.

History can no longer remain in our days that dead letter of events, to the detail of which the majority of earlier writers restricted themselves. It is now understood that in history, as in man, there are two elements — matter and spirit. Unwilling to resign themselves to the task of producing a simple recital of facts, which would have been but a barren chronicle, our great modern historians have sought for a vital principle to animate the materials of past ages.

Some have borrowed this principle from the rules of art: they have aimed at being ingenuous, exact, and picturesque in description, and have endeavored to give life to their narrative by the characteristic details of the events themselves.

Others have sought in philosophy the principle that should fertilize their labors. With the relation of events they have interwoven extended views, instructive lessons, political and philosophical truths; and have given animation to their narrative by the idea they have drawn from it, and by the theory they have been able to associate with it.

Both these methods, undoubtedly, are good, and should be employed within certain limits. But there is another source to which, above all, we must look for the intelligence, spirit, and life of past ages; and this source is Religion. History should live by that life which belongs to it, and that life is God. In history, God should be acknowledged and proclaimed. The history of the world should be set forth as the annals of the government of the Sovereign King.

I have gone down into the lists whither the recitals of our historians have invited me. There I have witnessed the actions of men and of nations, developing themselves with energy, and contending in violent collision. I have heard a strange din of arms, but I have been nowhere shown the majestic countenance of the presiding Judge.

And yet there is a living principle, emanating from God, in every national movement. God is ever present on that vast theater where successive generations of men meet and struggle. It is true he is unseen; but if the heedless multitude pass by without caring for him because he is “a God that dwelleth in the thick darkness,” thoughtful men, who yearn for the very principle of their existence, seek for him the more ardently, and are not satisfied until they lie prostrate at his feet. And their inquiries meet with a rich reward. For from the height to which they have been compelled to soar to meet their God, the history of the world, instead of presenting to their eyes a confused chaos, as it does to the ignorant crowd, appears as a majestic temple, on which the invisible hand of God himself is at work, and which rises to his glory above the rock of humanity.

Shall we not recognize the hand of God in those grand manifestations, those great men, those mighty nations, which arise, and start as it were from the dust of the earth, and communicate a fresh impulse, a new form and destiny to the human race? Shall we not acknowledge him in those heroes who spring from society at appointed epochs — who display a strength and activity beyond the ordinary limits of humanity — and around whom, as around a superior and mysterious power, nations and individuals unhesitatingly gather? Who has launched into the expanse of time, those huge comets with their fiery trains, which appear but at distant intervals, scattering among the superstitious crowd abundance and joy, calamity and terror? Who, if not God? Alexander sought his origin in the abodes of the Divinity. And in the most irreligious age there has been no eminent glory that has not endeavored in some way or other to connect itself with heaven.

And do not those revolutions which hurl kings from their thrones, and precipitate whole nations to the dust, — do not those wide-spread ruins which the traveler meets with among the sands of the desert, — do not those majestic relics which the field of humanity presents to our view; do they not all declare aloud — a God in history? Gibbon, seated among the ruins of the Capitol, and contemplating its august remains, owned the intervention of a superior destiny. He saw it — he felt it: in vain would he avert his eyes. That shadow of a mysterious power started from behind every broken pillar; and he conceived the design of describing its influence in the history of the disorganization, decline, and corruption of that Roman dominion which had enslaved the world. Shall not we discern amidst the great ruins of humanity that almighty hand which a man of noble genius — one who had never bent the knee to Christ — perceived amid the scattered fragments of the monuments of Romulus, the sculptured marbles of Aurelius, the busts of Cicero and Virgil, the statues of Caesar and Augustus, Pompey’s horses, and the trophies of Trajan, — and shall we not confess it to be the hand of God?

What a startling fact, that men brought up amid the elevated ideas of Christianity, regard as mere superstition that Divine intervention in human affairs which the very heathens had admitted!

The name given by ancient Greece to the Sovereign Ruler shows it to have received primeval revelations of the great truth of a God, who is the principle of history and the life of nations. He was styled Zeus, or the life-giver to all that lives, — to nations as well as to individuals. On his altars kings and people swore their solemn oaths; and from his mysterious inspirations Minos and other legislators pretended to have received their laws. This is not all: this great truth is figured forth by one of the most beautiful fables of heathen antiquity. Even mythology might teach a lesson to the philosophers of our days; and I may be allowed to establish the fact, as perhaps there are readers who will feel less prejudice against he instructions of paganism than of Christianity itself. This Zeus, this supreme Ruler, this Eternal Spirit, this life-giving Principle, is the father of Clio, the muse of history, whose mother is Mnemosyne or Memory.

Thus, according to the notions of antiquity, history combines a heavenly with an earthly nature. She is the daughter of God and man; but, alas! the purblind philosophy of our proud age is far from having attained the lofty views of that heathen wisdom. Her divine paternity has been denied; and the illegitimate child now wanders up and down the world, like a shameless adventurer, hardly knowing whence she comes or whither she is going.

But this God of pagan antiquity is only a faint reflection, a dim shadow of Jehovah — of the Eternal One. The true God whom the Hebrews worship, willing to impress on the minds of all nations that he reigns continually upon earth, gave with this intent, if I may venture the expression, a bodily form to this sovereignty in the midst of Israel. A visible theocracy was appointed to exist once upon the earth, that it might unceasingly remind us of that invisible theocracy which shall for ever govern the world.

And see what luster this great truth (God in history) receives under the Christian dispensation. What is Jesus Christ, if he be not God in history?

It was this discovery of Jesus Christ which enable John Muller, the greatest of modern historians, fully to comprehend his subject. “The Gospel,” said he, “is the fulfillment of every hope, the perfection of all philosophy, the interpreter of every revolution, the key to all the seeming contradictions in the physical and moral world: it is life and immortality.

Since I have known the Savior, every thing is clear to my eyes: with him, there is no difficulty I cannot solve.” f2 Thus wrote this eminent historian; and is not this great truth, that God has appeared in human nature, in reality the keystone of the arch, — the mysterious link which binds all earthly things together, and connects them with heaven? History records a birth of God, and yet God has no part in history! Jesus Christ is the true God of man’s history: it is shown by the very meanness of his advent. When man would raise a shelter against the weather — a shade from the heat of the sun — what preparation of materials, what scaffolding and crowds of workmen, what trenches and heaps of rubbish! — but when God would do the same, he takes the smallest seed that a new-born child might clasp in its feeble hand, deposits it in the bosom of the earth, and from that grain, scarcely distinguishable in its commencement, he produces the stately tree, under whose spreading branches the families of men may find a refuge. To effect great results by imperceptible means — such is the law of God.

In Jesus Christ is found the most glorious fulfillment of this law.

Christianity has now taken possession of the gates of every people. It reigns or hovers over all the tribes of the earth, from the rising to the setting sun; and even a skeptical philosophy is compelled to acknowledge it as the social and spiritual law of the world. And yet what was the commencement of this religion, the noblest of all things under the vault of heaven — nay, in the “infinite immense” of creation? A child born in the smallest town of the most despised nation in the world — a child whose mother had not what even the most indigent and wretched woman of our towns possesses, a room to shelter her in the hour of travail — a child born in a stable and cradled in a manger! In this, O God, I acknowledge and adore thee!

The Reformation recognized this divine law, and was conscious of fulfilling it. The idea that “God is in history” was often put forth by the reformers.

We find it particularly expressed by Luther in one of those homely and quaint, yet not undignified similitudes, which he was fond of using that he might be understood by the people. “The world,” said he one day at table with his friends, “is a vast and magnificent game of cards, made up of emperors, kings, princes, etc. The pope for many centuries beat the emperors, kings and princes. They yielded and fell before him. Then came our Lord God. He dealt the cards: he took the lowest (Luther) for himself, and with it he beat the pope, that vanquisher of the kings of the earth......This is the ace of God. As Mary said: ‘He hath put down the mighty from their seats, and exalted them of low degree.’” f3 The epoch whose history I am desirous of retracing is important for the present generation. When a man becomes sensible of his own weakness, he is generally inclined to look for support in the institutions he sees flourishing around him, or else in the bold devices of his imagination. The history of the Reformation shows that nothing new can be made out of things old; and that if, according to our Savior’s expression, we require new bottles for new wine, we must also have new wine for new bottles. It directs man to God as the universal agent in history, — to that Divine word, ever old by the eternal nature of the truths it contains, ever new by the regenerative influence that it exerts; which purified society three centuries ago, which restored faith in God to souls enfeebled by superstition, and which, at every epoch in the history of man, is the fountain whence floweth salvation.

It is singular to witness a great number of men, agitated by a vague desire of believing in something fixed, addressing themselves in our days to the erroneous Catholicism of Rome. In one sense this movement is natural: religion is so little known among them, that they think it can only be found where they see it inscribed in large letters on a banner that time has rendered venerable. I do not say that all Catholicism is incapable of bestowing on man what he stands in need of. I think we should carefully distinguish between Catholicism and Popery. The latter, in my opinion, is an erroneous and destructive system; but I am far from confounding it with Catholicism. How many worthy men, how many true Christians, has not the catholic church contained within its bosom! What important services were rendered by Catholicism to the existing states of Europe, at the moment of their formation — at a period when it was still deeply impregnated with the Gospel, and when Popery was as yet only hovering over it like a faint shadow! But we live no longer in those days. Strenuous endeavors are now making to reunite Catholicism with Popery; and if catholic and christian truths are put forward, they are merely to serve as baits to draw us into the nets of the hierarchy. We have nothing, then, to hope for on that side. Has Popery renounced one of its observances, of its doctrines, or of its assumptions? Will that religion which was insupportable in former times be less so in ours? What regeneration has ever been known to emanate from Rome? Is it from a pontifical hierarchy, overflowing with earthly passions, that can proceed the spirit of faith, hope, and charity, which alone can save us? Is it an exhausted system, that has no vitality for itself, which is everywhere in the struggles of death, and which exists only by external aid, that can impart life to others, or animate Christian society with the heavenly inspiration that it requires?

Will this yearning of the heart and mind that begins to be felt by many of our contemporaries, lead others to apply to the new Protestantism which in many places has succeeded the powerful teaching of the apostles and reformers? A great vagueness in doctrine prevails in many of those reformed churches whose first members sealed with their blood the clear and living faith that inspired them. Men distinguished for their information, and sensible to all the beauties which this world presents, are carried away into strange aberrations. A general faith in the divinity of the Gospel is the only standard they are willing to uphold. But what is this Gospel? That is the vital question; and yet on this, either they are silent, or else every one answers it according to his own opinions. What avails it to know that God has placed in the midst of all nations a vessel containing a remedy for our souls, if we care not to know its contents, or if we do not strive to appropriate them to ourselves? This system cannot fill up the void of the present times. While the faith of the apostles and reformers appears everywhere active and effectual for the conversion of the world, this vague system does nothing — enlightens nothing — vivifies nothing.

But let us not be without hope. Does not Roman-Catholicism confess the great doctrines of Christianity, — God the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost — Creator, Savior, and Sanctifier, who is the Truth? And does not this vague Protestantism hold in its hand the Book of Life, which is sufficient for doctrine, correction, and instruction in righteousness? And how many upright souls, honored in the eyes of men, lovely in the sight of God, are there not to be found among those subjected to these two systems? How can we forbear loving them? How not ardently desire their complete emancipation from human elements? Charity is infinite: it embraces the most distant opinions, to draw them to the feet of Christ.

Already there are indications that these two extreme opinions are moving nearer to Christ, who is the center of truth. Are there not some Romancatholic churches in which the reading of the Bible is recommended and practiced? And what steps has not Protestant rationalism already made! It did not spring from the Reformation: for the history of that great revolution will prove it to have been an epoch of faith. But may we not hope it is drawing nearer to it? Will not the might of truth go forth to it from the Word of God, and will not this rationalism be transformed by it?

Already we often witness in it a religious feeling, inadequate doubtless, but still it is a movement towards sound doctrine, and which may lead us to hope for some definite progress.

But the new Protestantism and the old Catholicism are of themselves irrelevant and ineffectual. We require something else to restore the saving power to the men of our days. We need something which is not of man — something that comes from God. “Give me,” said Archimedes, “a point without the world, and I will lift it from its poles.” True Christianity is this point, which raises the heart of man from its double pivot of selfishness and sensuality, and which will one day turn the whole world from its evil ways, and make it revolve on a new axis of righteousness and peace.

Whenever religion has been under discussion, there have been three points to which our attention has been directed. God, Man, and the Priest. There can only be three kinds of religion upon earth, according as God, Man, or the Priest, is its author and its head. I denominate that the religion of the priest, which is invented by the priest, for the glory of the priest, and in which a sacerdotal caste is dominant. By the religion of man, I mean those various systems and opinions which human reason has framed, and which, being the offspring of human infirmity, are consequently devoid of all healing power. The term divine religion I apply to the truth such as God gave it, — the end and aim of which are the glory of God and the salvation of man.

Hierarchism, or the religion of the priest — Christianity, or the religion of God — Rationalism, or the religion of man, are the three doctrines that divide Christendom in our days. There is no salvation, either for man or for society, in the first or in the last. Christianity alone can give life to the world; and, unhappily, of the three prevailing systems, it is not that which has the greatest number of followers.

Some, however, it has. Christianity is operating its work of regeneration among many Catholics in Germany, and no doubt in other countries also.

It is accomplishing its task with greater purity and vigor, in my opinion, among the evangelical Christians of Switzerland, France, Great Britain, and the United States. God be praised that these individual or social regenerations, produced by the Gospel, are no longer such rarities as must be sought in ancient annals.

It is the history of the Reformation in general that I desire to write. I purpose tracing it among different nations, to show that the same truths have everywhere produced the same results, and also to point out the diversities arising from the dissimilar characters of the people. It is especially in Germany that we find the primitive type of this reform: there it presents the most organic developments, — there chiefly it bears the character of a revolution not limited to a particular nation, but which concerns the whole world. The Reformation in Germany is the fundamental history of the reform — it is the primary planet; the other reformations are secondary planets, revolving with it, deriving light from the same source, forming part of the same system, but each having a separate existence, shedding each a different radiance, and always possessing a peculiar beauty. We may apply the language of St. Paul to these reforms of the sixteenth century: “There is one glory of the sun, and another glory of the moon, and another glory of the stars; for one star differeth from another star in glory.” 1 Corinthians 15:41. The Swiss Reformation occurred at the same time as the German, but was independent of it. It presented, at a later period especially, some of the great features observable in that of Germany. The Reformation in Great Britain recommends itself in a very especial manner to our attention, from the powerful influence which the churches of that country are exerting at the present day over all the world. But recollections of ancestry and of refuge — the remembrance of struggles, suffering, and exile endured in the cause of the Reformation in France, lend a particular attraction, in my eyes, to the French reform. Considered by itself, and with respect to the date of its origin, it presents beauties that are peculiarly its own.

I believe the Reformation to be the work of God: his hand is everywhere visible in it. Still I hope to be impartial in retracing its history. I think I have spoken of the principal Roman-catholic actors in this great drama — of Leo X, Albert of Magdeburg, Charles V, and Doctor Eck, for instance, more favorably than the majority of historians have done. On the other hand, I have had no desire to conceal the faults and errors of the reformers.

As early as the winter of 1831-32, I delivered a course of public lectures on the epoch of the Reformation. I then published my opening discourse. f4 These lectures were a preparatory labor for the history I now lay before the public.

This history is compiled from the original sources with which a long residence in Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, has rendered me familiar; as well as from the study, in their original languages, of the documents relating to the religious history of Great Britain and other countries. As these sources will be pointed out in the course of the work, it will be unnecessary to enumerate them here.

I should have wished to authenticate the various portions of my work by many original notes; but I feared that if they were long and frequent, they would prove a disagreeable interruption to my readers. I have therefore confined myself to such passages as seemed calculated to give them a clearer view of the history I have undertaken to write.

I address this history to those who love to see past events exactly as they occurred, and not by the aid of that magic glass of genius which colors and magnifies, but which sometimes also diminishes and changes them. Neither the philosophy of the eighteenth nor the romanticism of the nineteenth century will guide my judgments or supply my colors. The history of the Reformation is written in the spirit of the work itself. Principles, it is said, have no modesty. It is their nature to rule, and they steadily assert their privilege. Do they encounter other principles in their paths that would dispute their empire, they give battle immediately. A principle never rests until it has gained the victory; and it cannot be otherwise — with it to reign is to live. If it does not reign supreme, it dies. Thus, at the same time that I declare my inability and unwillingness to enter into rivalry with other historians of the Reformation, I make an exception in favor of the principles on which this history is founded, and I firmly maintain their superiority.

Up to this hour we do not possess, as far as I am aware, any complete history of the memorable epoch that is about to employ my pen. Nothing indicated that this deficiency would be supplied when I began this work.

This is the only circumstance that could have induced me to undertake it, and I here put it forward as my justification. This deficiency still exists; and I pray to Him from whom cometh every good and perfect gift, to grant that this humble work may not be profitless to my readers. J. H. MERLE D’AUBIGNE, D. D.